Reinventing the Classroom: The Challenge of a Globalized Europe
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Presentation by Dr. Emmanuelle LePichon (Utrecht University) at the Rutu Roundtable on Multilingual Education for Migrant Children in Europe. The Roundtable was hosted by Utrecht University in Utrecht, the Netherlands and held on 6 November 2015. More info: http://www.rutufoundation.org/rutu-roundtable-utrecht/
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Reinventing the Classroom: The Challenge of a Globalized Europe
- 1. Reinventing the classroom: The challenge of a globalized Europe Emmanuelle Le Pichon, Utrecht University, The Netherlands RUTU ROUNDTABLE MULTILINGUAL EDUCATION FOR MIGRANT CHILDREN IN EUROPE 6 NOVEMBER/ UTRECHT, THE NETHERLANDS 11:20-11:35 / #RutuRT
- 2. REINVENTING THE CLASSROOM: THE CHALLENGE OF A GLOBALIZED EUROPE Dr. Emmanuelle Le Pichon Utrecht University e.m.m.lepichon@uu.nl
- 3. PART 1: SNAPSHOT OF THE SITUATION IN THE NETHERLANDS
- 4. Young dual language learners • quality of the relationship of young children with their teachers – predicts social and academic performance in school – partly depends on the child characteristics » Noritz Rudasill & Kaufman, 2009
- 5. Young dual language learners • subtractive schooling = poor academic achievements » Le Pichon, 2010; Benson, 2009; Mohanty, 2009; Cummins, 2000.
- 6. Young dual language learners • should be schooled as soon as possible (Yazejian & al. 2015) • in a bilingual educational system – BUT:
- 7. Young dual language learners • Brazil, Bulgaria, Burundi, China, Congo, Germany, Eritrea, Greece, Guinea, Hungary, Indonesia, Iran, Lithuania, Morocco, Nigeria, Pakistan, Poland, Portugal, Rwanda, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Spain, Syria, Thailand, Turkey, Venezuela, US.
- 8. PART 2. CHALLENGES OF EXOLINGUAL SITUATIONS OF COMMUNICATION
- 9. Dilemma • To be socially accepted, one has to communicate adequately; • To communicate adequately, one needs to be socially accepted.
- 10. Assessments - fluency and proficiency with additions Example Level 1: Example Level 2: 2+1= (3) 11+3= (14) 3+2= (5) 16+9= (25) 6+3= (9) 11+17=(28) 4+5= (9) 6+6= (12)
- 11. Comparisons between languages Additions grade 2 better in Dutch no difference better in home language
- 12. Word problems ● Ability to apply problem-solving skills to real- world problems. ● Students are read simple word problems that include set sizes of up to 12. Examples: There are 5 children in the boat. 3 children get in. How many children are in the boat altogether now? There are 4 benches in the boat. There are 3 children sitting on each bench. How many children are there altogether in the boat?
- 13. Comparisons between languages Word problem grade 2 better in Dutch no difference better in home language
- 14. • Assessments in the school language do not always provide an accurate view of the child’s real competencies. • Content Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) • Tavares, 2015, p. 2 Assessments
- 15. PART 3: HOW TO REMEDY TO THIS SITUATION?
- 16. Translanguaging • ‘Teaching bilingual children by means of bilingual instructional strategies in which two or more languages are used alongside each other.’ » Creese & Blackledge, 2010 • to ‘exert educational effort that takes into account and builds further on the diversity of languages and literacy practices that children […] bring to school.’ » Torres-Guzman, 2006:14
- 17. Intercultural mediators of knowledge • ‘Assessments using translanguaging mode would enable students to show what they know using their entire linguistic repertoire.’ » Garcia & Wei, 2014:134 • Teachers should allow and reinforce the transfer of knowledge from one language to the other
- 18. Translanguaging practices • According to Tavares: – Acts on the metalinguistic awareness of the pupils – Supports the development of the school language – Supports the development of content learning of the subjects
- 19. Translanguaging practices • Allow children to participate in more situations, to be less frustrated, less anxious • Include parents and caregivers into the school career of their child
- 20. Conditions to translanguaging • Having different mother tongues is not a handicap but a chance! • Parents can be resources as well and that both parents and school need support; • Teachers should be convinced that ‘Assessments using translanguaging mode would enable students to show what they know using their entire linguistic repertoire.’ • Garcia & Wei, 2014:134. • Teachers should allow and reinforce the transfer of knowledge from one language to the other.
- 21. Part 4: How to realize translanguaging?
- 22. Examples • In Ireland: David Little • In France: Nathalie Auger • In the Basque Country: Jesone Cenoz • In Quebec: www.elodil.umontreal.ca • In Ghent, Belgium: www.steunpuntdiversiteitenleren.be
- 23. Nathalie Auger: Let’s compare our languages
- 24. Conclusion From a compartmentalized view of languages and schooling to a dynamic view of language learning, cognitive and affective development » Transitions and multilingualism, 2013
- 25. • Auger, N. (2013) Exploring the use of migrant languages to support learning in mainstream classrooms in France in Managing Diversity in Education, C. Leung, D. Little and P. Van Avermaet (dirs.), Bristol (UK), Multilingual matters. • Auger, N. Creese, A. & Blackledge, A. (2010). Translanguaging in the Bilingual Classroom: A Pedagogy for Learning and Teaching? The Modern Language Journal, 94, i. • Auger, N. (2003). Comparons nos langues. DVD Canopé CRDP de Montpellier. • Garcia, O. & Wei, L. (2014). Translanguaging: Language, Bilingualism and Education, Palgrave Macmillan • García, O., Skutnabb-Kangas, T., & Torres-Guzman, M. E. (2006). Weaving spaces and (de)constructing ways for multilingual schools: The actual and the imagined. In O.García, T.Skutnabb-Kangas, & M. E.Torres-Guzman (Eds.), Imagining multilingual schools: Languages in education and globalization, 3-50. Clevedon , UK : Multilingual Matters. • Hipfner-Boucher, K.; Lam, K.; Chen, X. (2014). The effects of bilingual education on the English language and literacy outcomes of Chinese-speaking children. Written Language & Literacy 17:1, John Benjamin • Le Pichon Vorstman, E. & Kambel, E.R. (forthcoming). Challenges of mathematics education in a multilingual post-colonial context: the case of Suriname. • Le Pichon Vorstman, E. (2010). What children know about communication. Doctorale dissertatie. 239 p. Netherlands Graduate School of Linguistics. LOT. • Le Pichon-Vorstman, E. (2013). Handling multilingualism in school context. In: Griebel W., Heinisch, R., Kieferle, C., Robe E. & Seifert, A. Transition to School and Multilingualism: a curriculum for Educational Professionals, 299-320. Dr. Kovac publishing house. • Mohanty, A. (2009). Multilingual education, A bridge too far? In T. Skutnabb-Kangas, R. Phillipson, A. Mohanty & M. Panda, ed. Social Justice Through multilingual education, 3-18. Multilingual Matters. • Moritz Rudasill, K., Rimm-Kaufman, S. (2009). Teacher-child relationship quality: The roles of child temperament and teacher-child interactions, Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 24, 107-120. • Tavares, N. (2014). How strategic use of L1 in an L2-medium mathematics classroom facilitates L2 interaction and comprehension. International Journal of Bilingual education and bilingualism. • Yazejian, N., Bryant, D.; Freel, K.; Burchinal, M.; the Educare Learning Network (ELN) (2015). Investigative Team High-quality early education: Age of entry and time in care differences in student outcomes for English- only and dual language learners. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 32, 23-39.
Notes de l'éditeur
- Good morning. I am very delighted to be here today. My name is Emmanuelle le Pichon, I am assistant professor in Applied Linguistics in Utrecht, the Netherlands, specialized in communicative competence in young dual language learners.
- What I will be presenting is a snap shot of what is the current state of thinking in The Netherlands and what we have learned over the past 4 years. As you know, the issue of migration and newly arrived migrant children is a hot topic at the moment in Europe. They are thus more and more very young children integrating school without any knowledge of the school language. This poses a huge challenge to schools and teachers. Why?
- Well, we know that the quality of the relationship of the young children with their teachers predict social and academic performance in school fairly well (see for instance Noritz Rudasill & Kaufman, 2009). We also know that this relationship partly depends on the child characteristics. For instance, a higher level of shyness in the child is associated with less content full interactions between child and teacher than a lower level of shyness (Noritz Rudasill & Kaufman, 2009). Hence we can expect that 1) establishing a high quality relationship with the teacher may be more challenging for dual language learners and 2) given the linguistic and cultural differences between teachers and children, children may be uncertain/ anxious/ shy in the interactions. This is logical but also problematic: in fact, when the language used in an interaction is unknown or only partially known to one of the participants, - this is the case of all Dual language learners in the ‘welcome classes’ in The Netherlands - a strong willingness to communicate is required from both partners in the exchange. In other words, an extra investment is required, for instance by using means of communication other than the purely linguistic ones in order to continue the exchange, otherwise, a rupture of communication will occur. My research focuses on the development of young dual language learners within and after their stay in the ‘welcome classes’. A welcome class is a special class for newly arrived migrant children where children learn the language so that they can integrate as soon as possible into a regular class. Of course, the languages spoken by the subgroups of the newly arrived migrant children are not included in the educational curriculum.
- The schooling of a child in a monolingual system is called subtractive. This does not refer to a program but to a group of children who do not have the choice but to attend school in a language that they do not master. And in the end, the second language learned will replace the first. Numerous studies have shown that this form of schooling, results in poor academic achievements (Le Pichon, 2010; Cummins, 2000; Benson, 2009; Mohanty, 2009).
- So we are confronted to a huge problem: we know that to ensure that the children access the level of education that corresponds to their cognitive possibilities and to reduce early school drop out, young dual language learners should be schooled as soon as possible (Yazejian & al. 2015) and in a bilingual educational system. But while we know this is what is required, it is very often impossible to realize: why? Because in all European countries, cultural and linguistic heterogeneity is a fact that has grown to be a challenge for the national educational systems.
- A concrete example is the group of children that I followed for my research. It shows an extreme diversity in terms of languages. From the 52 children, we identified 27 different countries of provenance: Brazil, Bulgaria, Burundi, China, Congo, Germany, Eritrea, Greece, Guinea, Hungary, Indonesia, Iran, Lithuania, Morocco, Nigeria, Pakistan, Poland, Portugal, Rwanda, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Spain, Syria, Thailand, Turkey, Venezuela, US. Moreover, when we compared the country of provenance to the nationality of the children, we found again discrepancies. Most children displayed a history of migration that preceded their arrival to the Netherlands. This also often implies that the children are already multilingual.
- So we have a situation where many of the new children are multilingual already, but they still need to learn yet another language, namely the language of the school. Moreover, in most cases, the teachers do not speak any of their languages, so communication may be very limited. What are the consequences? Example 1: During the research that we conducted in The Netherlands and within the ‘ welcome classes’, we asked the teachers to fill in the Teacher Report Form: this is a teacher report measure that assesses children’s behavior ad hoc in the classroom. We were shocked by the report that teachers made about the children: almost all children were disobedient, were often engaged in daydreaming, had learning difficulties, had difficulties to concentrate, did not finish their work… Of course and fortunately, the reports improved in time, but how is it possible that teachers who are formed and specialized in welcoming young dual language learners perceive a whole classroom as excessively shy, silent and bad learners? What may be the consequences of such perceptions on the relationship teacher/ child? And on the early years of school for these children? This means that we have a situation here: the communication between the teachers and the children is far from optimal. When I give workshops to teachers, I always ask them to think about their own children and imagine that they would look at them thinking: He/ she will never make it through high school…
- Thus to sum up: It is a vicious circle: Children and teachers need to develop a high quality relationship, therefore the children need to feel accepted as they are. But: To be socially accepted, one has to communicate adequately; To communicate adequately, one needs to be socially accepted.
- Example 2: assessments in grade 1: in most countries, assessments are viewed by policy makers as the main way to improve the education of children. In a recent research that I conducted in Suriname, we tried to discover whether the language of assessment influenced performance scores for the same tasks in young dual language learners (grade 1 and 2) and in mathematics. The children were schooled exclusively in Dutch, a language that most of them heard only at school. We found that when tested on simple arithmetic skills such as additions and subtractions
- , the children performed first of all very low however, better in the school language than in their home language.
- But when we compared to problem solving, tests which are of course much more verbal, for instance: There are 5 children in the boat. 3 children get in. How many children are in the boat altogether now? We found exactly the opposite:
- almost 40 % of the children scored better in their own language and only 6% scored better in Dutch. This is very interesting because it indicates that if dual language learners are assessed in the school language, they may perform – at least for tests that heavily rely on language - lower than their real intellectual capacities.
- In the Netherlands, all students, dual language learners included, are assessed every year and school choices are made based on these assessment results. This implies that the child’s evaluation may turn out – on average - lower than his or her real capacities which influences not only the teachers’ view on the child, their relationship, the expectations that the teachers may have from the child, but also the child’s academic trajectory. In mathematics education, recent reports about Content Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) show the need to include the mother tongue of the pupils in the learning process to support basic skills development in mathematics. According to Tavares, in Hong Kong, most schools choose mathematics as one of the subject to be taught in the second language. However, these studies have shown mixed results: most students improved in language proficiency but at the expense of academic content learning (Tavares, 2015, p. 2).
- How can we remedy to this situation in terms of teacher competencies? How can we improve the relationship between teachers and children and help them to create this high quality relationship? How can teachers build on the discourse practices of the children as children and teachers from different practices, languages and cultures need to work together? Teachers and dual language learners desperately need to know and understand each other better and faster: mutual understanding needs to be established before frustration occur due to miscommunication and misunderstanding and wrong images of each other. what our results show is, that the least one could do, is to include assessments in the languages of the children. The introduction of tests in both languages (the school and the home languages) would allow the teacher to distinguish between poor performances due to lack of school language proficiency and real cognitive challenges. This bilingual practice would start with raising awareness among teachers that performance results may vary as a function of the language used during the assessment and will facilitate the introduction of a multilingual educational strategy, also called translanguaging.
- Translanguaging pedagogies have emerged in the last 4 years in Europe and elsewhere, namely in Hong Kong: What is translanguaging: Translanguaging comes from the idea that children may be able to transfer skills from one language to another with minimal support. They only need to be supported and encouraged to do so. To introduce translanguaging in the classroom means that instead of avoiding the mother tongues of the children, teachers will welcome the children’s mother tongues and value their multilingual resources. They will make use of the mother tongues of the children WITHIN the classroom: in order to maximize communicative as well as cognitive potential development.
- Translanguaging encourages the development of multilingual and multiliteracy developments. It is not primarily based on languages but on the practices of bilinguals (Garcia, 2009, p. 140) and it targets the transfer of knowledge between the languages. One way of welcoming the languages of the children could be to allow children from the same language to try to solve a problem together in their own language and to report to their teacher together in the target language if the teacher does not speak the languages of the pupils. the goal is to facilitate learners’ comprehension and interaction in the language to be learned. This way multilingualism becomes the standard of the educational environment and not monolingualism.
- translanguaging enhances the development of cognitive skills from the very first year of school. According to Tavares, the strategic involvement of translanguaging practices in the classroom facilitates metalinguistic awareness, development of the school language and the content learning of the subject. The children become competent learners in the language in which they are taught, At the same time, it helps to avoid a shift from the mother tongue to school language dominance (i.e. Sheng, Lu & Kan, 2011).
- Translanguaging The anxiety raised by having to enact in a different language is reduced. This means that children will dare to engage in exchanges more easily and in the end, the relationship between teacher and children will improve. Comprehension is facilitated. The child’s self-confidence is reinforced. As you see, Translanguaging is a powerful tool to mediate children’s mental processes, to stimulate metacognitive awareness. by recognizing that children have multiple resources, teachers help children to make sense of their identity. They rely on what the children know instead of relying of what the children do not know
- some conditions to translanguaging. Teachers and directors should be convinced that: multilingual classrooms are not obstacles but opportunities, that we have evidence that translanguaging within the classroom is successful/ having a different mother tongue is not a handicap but a chance! parents can be resources as well and that both parents and school need support Teachers should be convinced that ‘Assessments using translanguaging mode would enable students to show what they know using their entire linguistic repertoire.’ (Garcia & Wei, 2014:134). Teachers should allow and reinforce the transfer of knowledge from one language to the other.
- As you saw in the example of Suriname, children do not need a lot of stimulation to be able to transfer their knowledge from one to another language. But they need to be encouraged to do so. Children may work out much more themselves than we think.
- There are a couple of very successful experiences that have been conducted in different contexts in Europe, in North America or in Asia integrating translanguaging practices. But I would like to present the research work of Nathalie Auger.
- She started a study in 2002 and she discovered that to make use of translanguaging in the classroom, teachers need to have some knowledge of intercultural communication (how do we communicate with each other and how to benefit from diversity?) and applied linguistics (what is a language? How do we acquire and learn languages, how do we acquire 2 or more languages, what is the meaning of a language mistake…), and some pedagogical practices (how to emphasize what the child already can do and not what he/ she doesn’t know yet…). She has developed a DVD entitled Let’s compare our languages (Auger, 2005) and a teachers’ book with activities to initiate multilingualism in class and transfer of languages within the classroom. What you can see in this movie is that the teacher fully accepts to leave his comfort zone as a teacher to allow the child to reach his comfort zone. He does not only recognizes his incapacity to hear the difference between the two sounds but also gives room for the child to elaborate on his own knowledge, to enter his own comfort zone. Isn’t it what we want? A school where children and teachers feel confident and competent?
- The main goal of translanguaging is to welcome linguistic and cultural diversity in schools in order to deal with heterogeneity in the classroom and to bridge the gap between languages and cultures. This poses complex demands on pedagogic professionalism: teachers need to radically change from a compartmentalized view of languages and schooling to a more dynamic view of language learning, cognitive and affective development. If included, translanguaging may create wellbeing and a sense of belonging in the very young dual language learners.