Introduction to positive psychology

1. Positive psychology
Positive psychology is "the scientific study
of what makes life most worth living",[1] or
"the scientific study of positive human
functioning and flourishing on multiple
levels that include the biological, personal,
relational, institutional, cultural, and global
dimensions of life".[2] Positive psychology
is concerned with eudaimonia, "the good
life", reflection about what holds the
greatest value in life – the factors that

2. contribute the most to a well-lived and
fulfilling life.
Positive psychology began as a new
domain of psychology in 1998 when
Martin Seligman chose it as the theme for
his term as president of the American
Psychological Association.[3][4][5] Mihaly
Csikszentmihalyi, Christopher Peterson
and Barbara Fredrickson are regarded as
co-initiators of this development.[6] It is a
reaction against psycho-analysis and
behaviorism, which have focused on
"mental illness", meanwhile emphasising
maladaptive behavior and negative
thinking. It builds further on the

3. humanistic movement, which encouraged
an emphasis on happiness, well-being, and
positivity, thus creating the foundation for
what is now known as positive
psychology.[5]
Positive psychologists have suggested a
number of ways in which individual
happiness may be fostered. Social ties
with a spouse, family, friends and wider
networks through work, clubs or social
organisations are of particular importance,
while physical exercise and the practice of
meditation may also contribute to
happiness. Happiness may rise with
increasing financial income, though it may

4. plateau or even fall when no further gains
are made.[7]
Definition
Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi define
positive psychology as "... the scientific
study of positive human functioning and
flourishing on multiple levels that include
the biological, personal, relational,
institutional, cultural, and global
dimensions of life."[2] Christopher Peterson
defines positive psychology as "... the
Definition and basic
assumptions

5. scientific study of what makes life most
worth living".[1]
Basic concepts
Positive psychology is concerned with
eudaimonia, "the good life" or flourishing,
living according to what holds the greatest
value in life – the factors that contribute
the most to a well-lived and fulfilling life.
While not attempting a strict definition of
the good life, positive psychologists agree
that one must live a happy, engaged, and
meaningful life in order to experience "the
good life". Martin Seligman referred to "the
good life" as "using your signature

6. strengths every day to produce authentic
happiness and abundant gratification".[8]
According to Christopher Peterson,
"eudaimonia trumps hedonism".[1]
Positive psychology complements, without
intending to replace or ignore, the
traditional areas of psychology. By
emphasizing the study of positive human
development this field helps to balance
other approaches that focus on disorder,
and which may produce only limited
understanding.[9] Positive psychology has
also placed a significant emphasis on
fostering positive self-esteem and self-
image, though positive psychologists with

7. a less humanist bent are less likely to
focus as intently on the matter. [10]
The basic premise of positive psychology
is that human beings are often drawn by
the future more than they are driven by the
past. A change in our orientation to time
can dramatically affect how we think
about the nature of happiness. Seligman
identified other possible goals: families
and schools that allow children to grow,
workplaces that aim for satisfaction and
high productivity, and teaching others
about positive psychology.[11]

8. Those who practice positive psychology
attempt psychological interventions that
foster positive attitudes toward one's
subjective experiences, individual traits,
and life events.[12] The goal is to minimize
pathological thoughts that may arise in a
hopeless mindset, and to, instead, develop
a sense of optimism toward life.[12]
Positive psychologists seek to encourage
acceptance of one's past, excitement and
optimism about one's future experiences,
and a sense of contentment and well-
being in the present.[13]
Related concepts are happiness, well-
being, quality of life, contentment,[14] and

9. meaningful life.
Research topics
According to Seligman and Peterson,
positive psychology is concerned with
three issues: positive emotions, positive
individual traits, and positive institutions.
Positive emotions are concerned with
being content with one's past, being happy
in the present and having hope for the
future. Positive individual traits focus on
one's strengths and virtues. Finally,
positive institutions are based on
strengths to better a community of
people.[11]

10. According to Peterson, positive
psychologists are concerned with four
topics: (1) positive experiences, (2)
enduring psychological traits, (3) positive
relationships, and (4) positive
institutions.[9] According to Peterson,
topics of interest to researchers in the field
are: states of pleasure or flow, values,
strengths, virtues, talents, as well as the
ways that these can be promoted by social
systems and institutions.[15]
History

11. Origin
The term positive psychology dates back
at least to 1954, when Maslow's first
edition of Motivation and personality was
published with a final chapter titled
"Toward a Positive Psychology."[16] In the
second edition (1970), he removed that
To Martin Seligman, psychology (particularly its
positive branch) can investigate and promote realistic
ways of fostering more well-being in individuals and
communities.

12. chapter, saying in the preface that "a
positive psychology is at least available
today though not very widely."[16] There
have been indications that psychologists
since the 1950s have been increasingly
focused on the promotion of mental health
rather than merely treating mental
illness.[17][18]
Positive psychology began as a new area
of psychology in 1998 when Martin
Seligman chose it as the theme for his
term as president of the American
Psychological Association.[3][19] In the first
sentence of his book Authentic Happiness,
Seligman claimed: "for the last half

13. century psychology has been consumed
with a single topic only – mental
illness",[20] expanding on Maslow's
comments.[a] He urged psychologists to
continue the earlier missions of
psychology of nurturing talent and
improving normal life.[22]
Development
The first positive psychology summit took
place in 1999. The First International
Conference on Positive Psychology took
place in 2002.[22] More attention was given
by the general public in 2006 when, using
the same framework, a course at Harvard

14. University became particularly popular.[23]
In June 2009, the First World Congress on
Positive Psychology took place at the
University of Pennsylvania.[24]
The International Positive Psychology
Association (IPPA) is a recently
established association that has expanded
to thousands of members from 80
different countries. The IPPA's missions
include: (1) "further the science of positive
psychology across the globe and to ensure
that the field continues to rest on this
science" (2) "work for the effective and
responsible application of positive
psychology in diverse areas such as

15. organizational psychology, counselling and
clinical psychology, business, health,
education, and coaching", (3) "foster
education and training in the field".[25]
The field of positive psychology today is
most advanced in the United States and
Western Europe. Even though positive
psychology offers a new approach to the
study of positive emotions and behavior,
the ideas, theories, research, and
motivation to study the positive side of
human behavior is as old as humanity.[26]
Influences

16. Several humanistic psychologists, most
notably Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers,
and Erich Fromm, developed theories and
practices pertaining to human happiness
and flourishing. More recently, positive
psychologists have found empirical
support for the humanistic theories of
flourishing. In addition, positive
psychology has moved ahead in a variety
of new directions.
In 1984, Diener published his tripartite
model of subjective well-being, positing
"three distinct but often related
components of wellbeing: frequent
positive affect, infrequent negative affect,

17. and cognitive evaluations such as life
satisfaction".[27] In this model, cognitive,
affective and contextual factors contribute
to subjective well-being.[28] According to
Diener and Suh, subjective well-being is
"...based on the idea that how each person
thinks and feels about his or her life is
important".[29]
Carol Ryff's Six-factor Model of
Psychological Well-being was initially
published in 1989, and additional testing
of its factors was published in 1995. It
postulates six factors which are key for
well-being, namely self-acceptance,
personal growth, purpose in life,

18. environmental mastery, autonomy, and
positive relations with others.[30]
According to Corey Keyes, who
collaborated with Carol Ryff and uses the
term flourishing as a central concept,
mental well-being has three components,
namely hedonic (c.q. subjective or
emotional[31]), psychological, and social
well-being.[32] Hedonic well-being
concerns emotional aspects of well-being,
whereas psychological and social well-
being, c.q eudaimonic well-being, concerns
skills, abilities, and optimal functioning.[33]
This tripartite model of mental well-being

19. has received extensive empirical support
across cultures.[33][31][34][35]
There is no accepted "gold standard"
theory in positive psychology, however the
work of Seligman is regularly quoted.[36]
So too the work of Csikszentmihalyi and
older models of well-being, such as Carol
Ryff's Six-factor Model of Psychological
Well-being and Diener's tripartite model of
subjective well-being.
Initial theory: three paths to
happiness
Theory and methods

20. In Authentic Happiness (2002) Seligman
proposed three kinds of a happy life which
can be investigated:[37][36]
1. Pleasant life: research into the Pleasant
Life, or the "life of enjoyment", examines
how people optimally experience,
forecast, and savor the positive feelings
and emotions that are part of normal
and healthy living (e.g., relationships,
hobbies, interests, entertainment, etc.).
Despite the attention given, Martin
Seligman says this most transient
element of happiness may be the least
important.[38]

21. 2. Good Life: investigation of the beneficial
effects of immersion, absorption, and
flow, felt by individuals when optimally
engaged with their primary activities, is
the study of the Good Life, or the "life of
engagement". Flow is experienced when
there is a positive match between a
person's strength and their current task,
i.e., when one feels confident of
accomplishing a chosen or assigned
task.[b]
3. Meaningful Life: inquiry into the
Meaningful Life, or "life of affiliation",
questions how individuals derive a
positive sense of well-being, belonging,
meaning, and purpose from being part

22. of and contributing back to something
larger and more permanent than
themselves (e.g., nature, social groups,
organizations, movements, traditions,
belief systems).
PERMA
In Flourish (2011) Seligman argued that
the last category of his proposed three
kinds of a happy life, "meaningful life", can
be considered as 3 different categories.
The resulting acronym is PERMA: Positive
Emotions, Engagement, Relationships,
Meaning and purpose, and
Accomplishments.[39] It is a mnemonic for

23. the five elements of Martin Seligman's
well-being theory:[36][40]
Positive emotions include a wide range
of feelings, not just happiness and
joy.[41] Included are emotions like
excitement, satisfaction, pride and awe,
amongst others. These emotions are
frequently seen as connected to positive
outcomes, such as longer life and
healthier social relationships.[42]
Engagement refers to involvement in
activities that draws and builds upon
one's interests. Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi
explains true engagement as flow, a
state of deep effortless involvement,[39]

24. feeling of intensity that leads to a sense
of ecstasy and clarity.[43] The task being
done needs to call upon higher skill and
be a bit difficult and challenging yet still
possible. Engagement involves passion
for and concentration on the task at
hand and is assessed subjectively as to
whether the person engaged was
completely absorbed, losing self-
consciousness.[41]
Relationships are essential in fueling
positive emotions[44], whether they are
work-related, familial, romantic, or
platonic. As Christopher Peterson puts it
simply, "Other people matter."[45]
Humans receive, share, and spread

25. positivity to others through
relationships. They are important not
only in bad times, but good times as
well. In fact, relationships can be
strengthened by reacting to one another
positively. It is typical that most positive
things take place in the presence of
other people.[46]
Meaning is also known as purpose, and
prompts the question of "why".
Discovering and figuring out a clear
"why" puts everything into context from
work to relationships to other parts of
life.[47] Finding meaning is learning that
there is something greater than one's
self. Despite potential challenges,

26. working with meaning drives people to
continue striving for a desirable goal.
Accomplishments are the pursuit of
success and mastery.[41] Unlike the
other parts of PERMA, they are
sometimes pursued even when
accomplishments do not result in
positive emotions, meaning, or
relationships. That being noted,
accomplishments can activate the other
elements of PERMA, such as pride,
under positive emotion.[48]
Accomplishments can be individual or
community-based, fun- or work-based.

27. Each of the five PERMA elements was
selected according to three criteria:
1. It contributes to well-being.
2. It is pursued for its own sake.
3. It is defined and measured
independently of the other elements.
Character Strengths and Virtues
The development of the Character
Strengths and Virtues (CSV) handbook
(2004) represented the first attempt by
Seligman and Peterson to identify and
classify positive psychological traits of
human beings. Much like the Diagnostic
and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders

28. (DSM) of general psychology, the CSV
provided a theoretical framework to assist
in understanding strengths and virtues and
for developing practical applications for
positive psychology. This manual
identified 6 classes of virtues (i.e., "core
virtues"), underlying 24 measurable
character strengths.[49]
The CSV suggested these 6 virtues have a
historical basis in the vast majority of
cultures; in addition, these virtues and
strengths can lead to increased happiness
when built upon. Notwithstanding
numerous cautions and caveats, this
suggestion of universality hints threefold:

29. 1. The study of positive human qualities
broadens the scope of psychological
research to include mental wellness, 2. the
leaders of the positive psychology
movement are challenging moral
relativism, suggesting people are
"evolutionarily predisposed" toward certain
virtues, and 3. virtue has a biological
basis.[50]
The organization of the 6 virtues and 24
strengths is as follows:
1. Wisdom and knowledge: creativity,
curiosity, open-mindedness, love of
learning, perspective, innovation

30. 2. Courage: bravery, persistence, integrity,
vitality, zest
3. Humanity: love, kindness, social
intelligence
4. Justice: citizenship, fairness, leadership
5. Temperance: forgiveness and mercy,
humility, prudence, self control
6. Transcendence: appreciation of beauty
and excellence, gratitude, hope, humor,
spirituality
Recent research challenged the need for 6
virtues. Instead, researchers suggested
the 24 strengths are more accurately
grouped into just 3 or 4 categories:
Intellectual Strengths, Interpersonal

31. Strengths, and Temperance Strengths[51]
or alternatively, Interpersonal Strengths,
Fortitude, Vitality, and Cautiousness[52]
These strengths, and their classifications,
have emerged independently elsewhere in
literature on values. Paul Thagard
described examples; these included Jeff
Shrager's workshops to discover the
habits of highly creative people.[53] Some
research indicates that well-being effects
that appear to be due to spirituality are
actually better described as due to
virtue.[54]
Flow

32. In the 1970s Csikszentmihalyi's began
studying flow, a state of absorption where
one's abilities are well-matched to the
demands at-hand. Flow is characterized by
intense concentration, loss of self-
awareness, a feeling of being perfectly
challenged (neither bored nor
overwhelmed), and a sense that "time is
flying". Flow is intrinsically rewarding; it
can also assist in the achievement of
goals (e.g., winning a game) or improving
skills (e.g., becoming a better chess
player).[55] Anyone can experience flow, in
different domains, such as play, creativity,
and work. Flow is achieved when the
challenge of the situation meets one's

33. personal abilities. A mismatch of
challenge for someone of low skills results
in a state of anxiety; insufficient challenge
for someone highly skilled results in
boredom.[55]
Research in positive psychology, well-
being, eudaimonia and happiness, and the
theories of Diener, Ryff, Keyes and
Seligman cover a broad range of topics
including "the biological, personal,
relational, institutional, cultural, and global
Applications and research
findings

34. dimensions of life".[2] A meta-analysis on
49 studies in 2009 showed that Positive
Psychology Interventions (PPI) produced
improvements in well-being and lower
depression levels, the PPIs studied
included writing gratitude letters, learning
optimistic thinking, replaying positive life
experiences and socializing with others.[56]
In a later meta-analysis of 39 studies with
6,139 participants in 2012, the outcomes
were positive. Three to six months after a
PPI the effects for subjective well-being
and psychological well-being were still
significant. However the positive effect
was weaker than in the 2009 meta
analysis, the authors concluded that this

35. was because they only used higher quality
studies. The PPIs they considered
included counting blessings, kindness
practices, making personal goals, showing
gratitude and focusing on personal
strengths.[57]
Ilona Boniwell, in her book Positive
Psychology in a Nutshell, provided the
following summary of the current
research. Wellbeing is related to optimism,
extraversion, social connections (i.e. close
friendships), being married, having
engaging work, religion or spirituality,
leisure, good sleep and exercise, social
class (through lifestyle differences and

36. better coping methods) and subjective
health (what you think about your health).
Wellbeing is not related to age, physical
attractiveness, money (once basic needs
are met), gender (women are more often
depressed but also more often joyful),
educational level, having children
(although they add meaning to life),
moving to a sunnier climate, crime
prevention, housing and objective health
(what doctors say).[58]
Sonja Lyubomirsky, in her book The How
Of Happiness, says that to improve
happiness individuals should create new
habits; they can seek out new emotions,

37. use variety and timing to prevent hedonic
adaptation and enlist others to motivate
and support during the creation of those
new habits.[59] Lyubomirsky gives 12
happiness activities such as savouring life,
learning to forgive and living in the present,
each of which could become the basis for
a new habit.
In Positive Psychology: The Science of
Happiness, the authors Compton and
Hoffman give the "Top Down Predictors" of
wellbeing as high self esteem, optimism,
self efficacy, a sense of meaning in life
and positive relationships with others. The
personality traits most associated with

38. well being are extraversion, agreeability
and low levels of neuroticism.[60]
In the Journal of Occupational
Rehabilitation, Kreutzer and Mills argue for
the principles of positive psychology to be
implemented to assist those recovering
from traumatic brain injury (TBR). They
make the case that TBI rehabilitation
practices rely on the betterment of the
individual through engaging in everyday
practices, a practice significantly related to
tenets of positive psychology.[61] Their
proposal to connect positive psychology
with TBI vocational rehabilitation (VR) also
looks at happiness and its correlation with

39. improvements in mental health, including
increased confidence and productivity, as
well as others.[61] While the authors point
out that empirical evidence for positive
psychology is limited, they clarify that
positive psychology's focus on small
successes, optimism and prosocial
behaviour is promising for improvements
in the social and emotional well-being of
TBI patients.[61]
According to Kirk Schneider, positive
psychology fails to explain past heinous
behaviors such as those perpetrated by
Criticism

40. the Nazi party, Stalinist marches and Klan
gatherings, to identify but a few.
Furthermore, Schneider pointed to a body
of research showing high positivity
correlates with positive illusion, which
effectively distorts reality.[62] The extent of
the downfall of high positivity (also known
as flourishing) is one could become
incapable of psychological growth, unable
to self-reflect, and tend to hold racial
biases. By contrast, negativity, sometimes
evidenced in mild to moderate depression,
is correlated with less distortion of reality.
Therefore, negativity might play an
important role within the dynamics of
human flourishing. To illustrate, conflict

41. engagement and acknowledgement of
appropriate negativity, including certain
negative emotions like guilt, might better
promote flourishing.[63] Overall, Schneider
provided perspective: "perhaps genuine
happiness is not something you aim at,
but is a by-product of a life well lived – and
a life well lived does not settle on the
programmed or neatly calibrated."[64]
Seligman has acknowledged in his work
the point about positive illusion,[65] and is
also a critic of merely feeling good about
oneself apart from reality and recognises
the importance of negativity /
dysphoria.[66]

42. Ian Sample, writing for The Guardian, noted
that, "Positive psychologists also stand
accused of burying their heads in the sand
and ignoring that depressed, even merely
unhappy people, have real problems that
need dealing with." Sample also quoted
Steven Wolin, a clinical psychiatrist at
George Washington University, as saying
that the study of positive psychology is
just a reiteration of older ways of thinking,
and that there is not much scientific
research to support the efficacy of this
method.[67] Gable responds to criticism on
their pollyanna view on the world by saying
that they are just bringing a balance to a
side of psychology that is glaringly

43. understudied.[68] To defend his point,
Gable points to the imbalances favouring
research into negative psychological
wellbeing in cognitive psychology, health
psychology, and social psychology.[69]
Barbara S. Held argued that while positive
psychology makes contributions to the
field of psychology, it has its faults. She
offered insight into topics including the
negative side effects of positive
psychology, negativity within the positive
psychology movement, and the current
division in the field of psychology caused
by differing opinions of psychologists on
positive psychology. In addition, she noted

44. the movement's lack of consistency
regarding the role of negativity. She also
raised issues with the simplistic approach
taken by some psychologists in the
application of positive psychology. A "one
size fits all" approach is arguably not
beneficial to the advancement of the field
of positive psychology; she suggested a
need for individual differences to be
incorporated into its application.[70]
Martin Jack has also maintained that
positive psychology is not unique in its
optimistic approach to looking at optimal
emotional wellbeing, stating that other
forms of psychology, such as counselling

45. and educational psychology, are also
interested in positive human fulfillment.
He goes on to mention that, while positive
psychology has pushed for schools to be
more student-centred and able to foster
positive self-images in children, he worries
that a lack of focus on self-control may
prevent children from making full
contributions to society. [71]
Precursors
New Thought
Maslow's hierarchy of needs
Needs and Motives (Henry Murray)
See also

46. Various
Anatomy of an Epidemic
Aversion to happiness
Louise Burfitt-Dons
Culture and positive psychology
Happiness economics
Meaning of life
Positive education
Positive Neuroscience
Positive youth development
Posttraumatic growth
Pragmatism
Psychological resilience
Rational ignorance

47. Second wave positive psychology
Sex-positive movement
Theory of humor
a. Maslow wrote:
Notes
The science of psychology has
been far more successful on
the negative than on the
positive side. It has revealed to
us much about man’s
shortcomings, his illness, his
sins, but little about his
potentialities, his virtues, his

48. Footnotes
b. See related concepts: Self-efficacy and
play.
1. Peterson, Christopher (16 May 2008).
achievable aspirations, or his
full psychological height. It is
as if psychology has
voluntarily restricted itself to
only half its rightful
jurisdiction, the darker,
meaner half.[21]
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Further reading

71. Fromm, Eric (1973). The Anatomy of Human
Destructiveness. New York: New York,
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03-007596-4.
Kahneman, Daniel; Diener, Ed; Schwarz, Norbert,
eds. (2003). Well-Being: The Foundations
of Hedonic Psychology. New York:
Russell Sage Foundation Publications.
ISBN 978-0-87154-424-7.
Keyes, Corey L. M.; Haidt, Jonathan, eds.
(2003). Flourishing: Positive Psychology
and the Life Well-lived. Washington:
American Psychological Association.
pp. 275–289. ISBN 978-1-55798-930-7.
Kashdan, Todd (2009). Curious? Discover the
Missing Ingredient to a Fulfilling Life.
New York: HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-
06-166118-1.

72. McMahon, Darrin M. (2006). Happiness: A
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Robbins, Brent Dean (2008). "What Is the Good
life? Positive Psychology and the
Renaissance of Humanistic
Psychology" (PDF). The Humanistic
Psychologist. 36 (2): 96–112.
doi:10.1080/08873260802110988 .
ISSN 1547-3333 .
Seligman, Martin (1990). Learned Optimism:
How to Change Your Mind and Your Life.
Free Press.
Snyder, C. R.; Lopez, Shane J. (2001). Handbook
of Positive Psychology. Oxford University
Press.
Stebbins, R. A. (2015). Leisure and Positive
Psychology: Linking Activities with

73. Wikiversity has learning resources about
Positive psychology
Origins
Christopher Peterson, What Is Positive
Psychology, and What Is It Not?
The 5 Founding Fathers and A History of
Positive Psychology
Positiveness. Houndmills, England:
Palgrave Macmillan.
Zagano, Phyllis; Gillespie, C. Kevin (2006).
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Psychology" (PDF). The Way. 45 (4):
41–58. Retrieved 11 July 2018.
External links

74. The Father of Positive Psychology and
His Two Theories of Happiness
Resources
University of Pennsylvania, Authentic
Happiness , website of Martin Seligman
Various
Martin Seligman presentation on
positive psychology (Video) at TED
conference
The Karma of Happiness: A Buddhist
Monk Looks at Positive Psychology by
Thanissaro Bhikkhu
The positive words dictionary: An online
resource of positive words for use in

75. Content is available under CC BY-SA 3.0 unless
otherwise noted.
Positive Psychology
https://positivewordsdictionary.com
Retrieved from
"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Positive_psychology&oldid=883950214"
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