Brief introduction to educational research with its origin and internal logic

2. Commonsense Meaning of Research
• Research is usually associated with the outcomes of endeavours of
scholars who pursue it in order to earn such degrees as
M.Phil/M.Litt/Ph.D./D.Phil or D.Litt/D.Sc. of some university.
• Another genre of research is associated with the findings contained in
the project reports, while the projects may or may not be sponsored, or
the projects may constitute an integral part of the program of studies for
specific degrees or diplomas.
• The 'common notion of research' also associates it with the findings of
the scientists who do extensive work in research laboratories, research
institutes or post graduate departments of the faculty of science of the
universities, though research is also undertaken by scholars other than
the physical / natural scientists. These notions of research portray
obliquely the meaning and nature of research. This portrayal of research
may, however, constrain the nature and narrow the scope of the subject-
matter of research.

3. Word Derivation and Dictionary Meaning of Research
• Research is derived from French Word Recherche which means travel through or
survey.
• Literal meanings of "Research' are "re-search', or search again, implying literally the
possession of awareness of the efforts having been made in the past to know the
given phenomenon. It means that research seldom, if ever, occurs without there
being precedents.
• But no one re-invents the wheel, though wheels may be made daily. This means
that research does not stand for investigating a given subject again and again to reach
the same results. The word ‘re’ before ‘search’ may be interpreted to mean that
research is an Endeavour to advance ahead of the prevailing and go beyond what is
already known about the given phenomenon. Research may thus be defined as an
effort to know more about any given subject or topic. In common parlance, research
may thus refer to a search for knowledge.
• Dictionary meaning of Research in English is – careful, systematic, patient study and
investigation in some field of knowledge undertaken to discover or establish facts or
principles.
- In ultimate research is an inquiry or investigation to know reliable facts.

4. Some lights on Method and Source of Inquiry:
Unscientific to Scientific
 A) Authority (Primitive method and Source) :
Person having the long experience with the problem and mastery enough to solve the problem
i.e.- parents, priest, king, teachers, leaders etc.
Like- Motor- Mechanic may regarded as authority to provide reliable facts on motor parts.
Merit- Covenant and Easy, cheap, experience based, valid
Demerit- Subjectivity, illogical, unsystematic, less reliable, barrier in new facts findings.
 B) Tradition
Way of life followed by a group of people from generation to generation on the basis of their
ancestral knowledge.
Example- lifestyle, faith etc.
Merit- Covenant and Easy, cheap, experience based, valid
Demerit- Subjectivity, less reliable, barrier in new facts findings.
C) Experience
Relying on one’s knowledge of prior experiences
Merit- self-verified, no need of second prove, most valid and practical, suitable for new
facts
Demerit- Subjectivity depends on intelligence, emotion, tradition and attitude .
A) Unscientific Methods and Sources of Inquiry:

5. Some lights on Method and Source of Inquiry:
Unscientific to Scientific
• A) Scientific Methods and Sources of Inquiry:
A) Deductive
Deductive method/source of knowledge is introduced by Aristotle. This method is also known as
General to Specific
Aristotle suggest a logical process named as syllogism to reach up to any conclusion or true knowledge.
Syllogism is based on three Promises
1. Major Promises or Generalized Knowledge
Example- Man are mortal.
2. Minor Promises or Logical Connector between G to S
Example- Mohan is a Man.
3. Conclusion or True Knowledge
Example- Mohan will die one day.
Merit- Logical and convenience
Demerit- highly depends on worthiness of logical statement (Minor Promises)
- You must begin with true premises in order to arrive at true conclusions
- Deductive reasoning only organizes what is already known

6. Some lights on Method and Source of Inquiry:
Unscientific to Scientific
C) Scientific Method or Modern Research Method
Scientific Method or Modern Research Method is developed by Charles Darwin .
Scientific method is systematic inclusion of both inductive and deductive logic for a
single problem.
A) Scientific Methods and Sources of Inquiry:
B) Inductive
Inductive method/source of knowledge is introduced by Francis Backon. This method is
also known as
Specific to General
Core of this method- On the basis of similar conclusion of many specific cases we may
derived a general conclusion.
Merit- Systematic, Logical and suitable for new facts findings.
Demerit-
- Many similar cases needs to reach any conclusion which is impractical.
- Costly in the means of time, money and labor.
Specific
General
Specific

7. Specific
General
Specific
Steps of Research: Inductive – to – Deductive
Steps Activity Process Logic
1. Selection and Identification of Problem S Inductive
2. Defining the Problem
3. Formulation of Hypothesis G
Deductive
4. Process of Data Collection S
5. Analysis, Interpretation and Verification
6. Findings

8. So What is Research?
• The systematic application both
inductive and deductive logic for the
solution of a meaningful problem.
All the steps of scientific enquiry are the steps of
Research.

9. What is Educational Research
• Research done for the solution of
Educational problem is Educational
Research
• Research undertaken to improve the theory
and practice of education is educational
research.

10. Basic Characteristics of Educational Research
• It is logical and systematic- systematic application of inductive
and deductive logic.
• It is directional- for the solution of problem
• It is social- works for the benefit of the society.
• It is patience, unhurried and courageous work
• Sometimes against social norms.
• Research is empirical- needs observational evidence.
• Research needs accurate information and description
• Research is replicable- deliberately repeated study by using
identical or similar procedure.

11. Limitations of Educational Research
• Complex and unstable human behavior
• Difficulty in Observation
• Difficulty in Replication (inductive logic)
• Difficulties of Control
• Measurement problem.

12. Types of Research
• On the Basis of Application
– Basic/ Fundamental (Theory)
– Applied (Utility)
• Applied (Large scale or universal implication)
• Action (Instant implication no universal implication)
• On the Basis of Approach
– Quantitative (Evaluation on quantitative scale)
– Qualitative (Evaluation on quantitative as well as descriptive facts)
• On the Basis of Method
– Historical (Past phenomena)
– Descriptive (Current status)
– Experimental (Futuristic : Effect prediction)
– Casual Comparative or Ex-post Facto (Cause and Effect
analysis of already occurred problem in present condition)

13. Types of Research:
Basic/Fundamental/Pure Research
…the process of collecting and analyzing information to develop or
enhance a theory
Travers (1948)
“ Basic research is designed to add to an organized body scientific knowledge
and doesn't necessarily produce result of immediate practical value.”
- The main aim of basic research is the discovery of knowledge solely for the
shake of knowledge.
Nature/ Characteristics of Basic/ Fundamental Research:
• Primary aim of basic research is for the development of theory
• It employs empirical data
• It represent rigorous and structure type of analysis
• It doesn’t necessarily produce immediate implication.
• High universal value.
• It has drawn its pattern from physical science.

14. Types of Research: Applied Research
Travers (1948)
“ Applied Research is undertaken to solve an immediate practical problem and
goal adding to scientific knowledge is secondary.”
- The main aim of applied research is the applicability of research findings.
Nature/ Characteristics of Applied Research:
• In applied research theory development/ scientific knowledge is secondary
and applicability of the research is primary.
• Less universal value as compare to basic research.
• It doesn’t represent rigorous and structure type of analysis
• It has drawn its pattern from social sciences.

15. Types of Research: Action Research
According to Corey (1953)
“ The process by which the practitioners attempt to study their problem
scientifically in order to guide correct and evaluate own decision and action.”
- Action research is a type of applied research or decision oriented research
but with the stipulation that researcher is the same practitioner who will
make and live with the decision.
Nature/ Characteristics of Action Research:
• Function of action research is same as applied research with most immediate
implication to practical life.
• No universal value.
• Researcher is the same practitioner.
• It is to change own decision and action to bring improvement in practice.
• No expertise or advance knowledge on research practice needed in action
research. Anybody can do action research to improve his/her practice.
• Most valuable for classroom problems in the field of education.
Corey (1953) is the originator of the term Action Research which is most
recently take birth as a new way of Research from a common man with out
any expertise.

16. Steps of Action Research:
Steps Activity Process Logic
1. Selection of Problem S Inductive
2. Defining the Problem
3. Exploring of probable causes
4. Formulation of Hypothesis G
Deductive
5. Process of Data Collection S
6 Analysis, Interpretation and Verification
7 Findings
8 Implication of Findings and Fellow up
Program

17. Types of Research on the basis of
Approach
A. Quantitative
…collects and analyzes numerical data obtained
from formal instruments
…collects and analyzes nonnumeric data over an
extended period of time to situate meaning
within a particular perspective or context
A. Qualitative

18. Quantitative methods...
 Descriptive Research
 Correlational research
 Causal-comparative research
(“Ex post facto research”)
 experimental research

19. Quantitative Method Decision Tree…
Is there a cause-effect relationship?
Is the independent
variable manipulated?
Is there a relationship or
prediction being made?
Experimental Causal-
Comparative
Correlational Descriptive

20.  Descriptive Research (survey research)
…collects data in order to answer
questions about the current status of
the subject or topic of study
…uses formal instruments to study
preferences, attitudes, practices,
concerns, or interests of a sample

21.  Correlational Research
…determines whether and to what degree a
relationship exists between two or more
variables
…the presence of a correlation does not
indicate a cause-effect relationship
primarily due to multiple confounding
factors

22. Correlation Coefficient (r)…
-1.00 +1.00
strong negative strong positive
0.00
no
relationship

23. A Positive Correlationship…
y
x

24. A Negative Correlationship…
y
x

25. No Correlationship…
y
x

26. No Correlationship…
y
x

27.  Causal-Comparative Research (Ex post Facto
Research)
…at least two different groups are compared
on a dependent variable or measure of
performance (called the “effect”) because the
independent variable (called the “cause”) has
already occurred or cannot be manipulated.

28. VARIABLES IN RESEARCH
• Definition: Variables are properties or
characteristics of people or things that vary
in quality or magnitude from person to
person or object to object (Miller &
Nicholson, 1976)
– Demographic characteristics
– Personality traits
– Communication styles or competencies
– Constructs
• in order to be a variable, a variable must
vary (e.g., not be a constant), that is, it
must take on different values, levels,
intensities, or states

29. Definitions of Variable
• Variable: “any entity that can take on a variety
of different values” (Wrench et al, 2008, p. 104)
– gender
– self-esteem
– managerial style
– stuttering severity
• attributes, values, and levels are the variations
in a variable
– Attribute: political party, self-esteem
– Value: Democrat, Republican, Independent,
etc.
– Level: High, Medium, Low

30. Types of Variables
Research Variables
Cause/ Input/
Stimulus
Type Variable
Independent
Variables
Experimental/
Treatment
Attributes
variables
Process Variables
Compound
Variables
Extraneous
Variables
Intervening
Variables
Control
variables
Effect/Output/
Response
Type Variable
Dependent
Variables
Observable
variables
Measureable
Variables

31. Independent variable
• The variable that is manipulated either by the
researcher or by nature or circumstance
• Independent variables are also called “stimulus” “input”
or “predictor” variables
• Analogous to the “cause” in a cause-effect relationship
• Independent Variables are of Three Types:
– Experimental OR Treatment Variable: Which generally
manipulated by the researcher in the study
– Attributes Variables are unchangeable or un-manipulable as
gender, SES. Caste etc.

32. Dependent Variable
• a variable that is observed or measured,
and that is influenced or changed by the
independent variable
• dependent variables are also known as
“response” or “output” or “criterion”
variables
• analogous to the “effect” in a cause-effect
relationship

33. Process Involved Variables
• Control Variable-
• Control variables are those variables which have a
predicable effects on dependent variables and which to be
control in the study.
• Confounding Variables-
• also known as extraneous variables or intervening variables
• confounding variables “muddy the waters”
 Extraneous Variable – Unpredictable influence on
dependent variable which need to be control.
 Intervening Variables- It hide the true relationship
between independent and dependent variables. It must put
effect on dependent variable but uncontrolled too.

34.  experimental research
…the researcher selects participants
and divides them into two or more
groups having similar characteristics
and, then, applies the treatment(s) to
the groups and measures the effects
upon the groups

35. Statistical Variables in Research
• Discrete variables
– (static in nature)
– Nominal variables: distinct,
mutually exclusive categories
• religions; Christians, Muslims,
Jews, etc.
• occupations; truck driver,
teacher, engineer
• marital status; single,
married, divorced
– Concrete versus abstract
variables
• concrete; relatively fixed,
unchanging
– biological sex
– ethnicity
• abstract; dynamic, transitory
– mood, emotion
– Occupation
• Continuous Variables-
– Dynamic in nature, add, arrange and
suitable for interval and ratio scale
– i.e.- Achievement, IQ, SES,
• Ordinal variables: mutually exclusive
categories, but with an order,
sequence, or hierarchy
• Rainy, winter, summer, spring
• Infancy, childhood, adolescents.
Adulthood.
• Dichotomous variables:
– Variables that folded in two parts
• true/false,
• female/male
• democrat/republican
– Pure dichotomous (Natural)- Life and
Death
– Dichotomous (Manipulated)- Rich-Poor
• Dichotomized Variables
– Entire degree of the variables folded in two
parts
• High SES and Low SES,
• Superior and Inferior
• Pure Dichotomized- With real difference
• Dichotomized- Unreal difference

36. Qualitative methods...
 historical research
 ethnography
 case study
 ethology
 ethnomethodology
 phenomenology
 Narratology
 action research
 grounded theory
 symbolic interaction

37.  Historical Research
…studies available data to study,
understand, and interpret past events

38.  Ethnography
…studies cultural patterns and
perspectives of participants in their
natural settings

39.  ethology
…compares the origins, characteristics,
and culture of different societies

40.  Ethnomethodology
…studies how people make sense of
their everyday activities in order to
behave in socially accepted ways
• Applied in Subject of Sociology

41.  Symbolic interaction
…What common set of symbols and
understanding has emerged to give
meaning to people’s interaction.
-Applied in Subject of Social Psychology

42.  Grounded theory
…investigates how inductively-derived
theory about phenomenon is grounded
in the data of a particular setting.

43.  Phenomenology
…considers how the experience of
particular participants exhibits a
unique perspective

44.  case study
…examines the characteristics of a
particular entity, phenomenon, or
person

45.  action research
…practitioner-based systematic
reflection upon practice aimed at
improving professional practice

46. Generally speaking, qualitative
researchers….
…spend a great deal of time in the
settings being studied (fieldwork)
…rely on themselves as the main
instrument of data collection
(subjectivity; intersubjectivity)
…analyze data using interpretative lenses

47. …employ expressive language and voice
in descriptions and explanations
…seek depth of perspective (i.e., “waves
of data” requiring ongoing
interpretation)
…judged in terms of believability,
trustworthiness, coherence, and logic
of interpretations

48. Types of criticism...
Internal…
…evaluates the worth or
trustworthiness of the content of
the data
…assesses the authenticity of the
data source
External…

49.  data sources…
…primary
…secondary
…tertiary

50. Limitations of the scientific and
disciplined inquiry approach…
• not able to investigate philosophical and/or
moral/ethical problems (“shoulds” and
“oughts”) only factual matters
 the presence of intervening and
confounding variables make assertions
probable rather than proven
 imperfections in sampling, instruments,
procedures

51. Mini-Quiz…
• Identify the research methodology…
…a study of the research on the effect
of anxiety on achievement from 1900
to 1990
historical

52. …a study of the effect of socioeconomic
status on self-concept
causal-comparative

53. …a study to compare the achievement
of two groups: one group taught in
an anxiety-producing environment
and one group taught in an anxiety
reducing environment
experimental

54. …a study of the personal and
educational interactions in a group
of teachers developing social
studies standards for a high school
curriculum
qualitative

55. …a study to compare the achievement
of a group of students classified as
high-anxious and a group classified
as low-anxious
causal-comparative

56. …a study of teachers’ attitudes toward
unions
historical

57. …a study of the effect of large-group
versus small-group instruction upon
achievement
experimental

58. …a study of SAT preparation by three
students, with particular emphasis
on their anxiety
qualitative

59. …a study to determine the relationship
between scores on an anxiety scale
and scores on an achievement
measure
correlational

60. …a survey of teachers to determine
how and to what degree they believe
anxiety affects achievement
descriptive

61. This module has focused on...
…which enable educators to access,
understand, and evaluate research
findings and the claims purported
by researchers
introductory research concepts

62. The next module will focus
on...
...as the foundation for a literature
review and the formulation of a
hypothesis
research problems