Alenka Sauperl: Qualitative Research Methods in Information and Library Science
1. Qualitative research methods in
information and library science
dr. Alenka Šauperl
Department of Library and
Information Science and Book
Studies, Faculty of Arts,
University of Ljubljana
alenka.sauperl@ff.uni-lj.si
2. Comparison of quantitative and
qualitative methods
QUANTITATIVE
Hypothesis testing
Variables
Measuring instruments
developed before the actual
project starts
Numeric data, precise,
exact measurement
Standardized procedures,
repetitions
Analysis: statistical
methods, charts and tables
Results: charts, tables,
facts
Validity: statistical tests
QUALITATIVE
Discovery and understanding of events
Themes, motives, categories
Measuring instruments develop during
the project, considering setting and
researcher
Textual data, documents,
observations, descriptive
Individualized procedures, repetitions
are difficult and different
Analysis: seeking patterns,
generalizations from available data
Results: stories, narratives,
descriptions
Validity: triangulation, peer review
3. Qualitative methods
Researcher collects data in a real environment.
Researcher himself/herself is the key research tool.
Focus of research is a process or activity itself, not just
results of that process or activity.
Data collected is most often verbal (non-numerical).
Verbal data analysis (rarely numerical).
Results are facts with limited usability and new
research questions. Rarely verification of hypothesized
relationships are confirmed.
4. Why engage in qualitative
research?
Different research methods supplement each other.
Qualitative methods focus on social interactions and
the individual in that social situation – just like libraries
and information centres.
We should use all means to aid our efforts in attracting
more users and fulfilling their information needs.
5. Most frequently used methods
Observation
– The researcher observes events and behavior in natural
setting
– Diary – “self-observation”
Interview
– Opinions and feelings of interviewed people
– Formal and informal
– Group discussion, focus group
Content analysis
– Artefacts, documents – not people
– Also part of every other qualitative research
6. Observation
We are intrigued by a problem in a library
We observe
– A certain space (reference desk)
– An individual or a group of people (catalogers, OPAC users)
– An activity (storytelling)
Observation has to be
– Systematic and open
– Nonobtrusive but not covert
7. Observation: An example
Cobus, L., Dent, V.F. & Ondusek, A. 2005.
How twenty-eight users helped redesign and
academic library Web site: a usability study.
Reference & User Services Quarterly, vol. 44,
no. 3, pp. 232-46.
– Does the organization of the library Web site help
users find the desired information?
– Hunter College Library, City University of New York
– Result: a user friendly Web site
8. Research design
Quantitative part:
– Exercises for participants: counting moves,
measuring time
Qualitative part:
– Observing participants during their work on
exercises: what confuses them, how do they
understand terms
9. Quantitative part
Example questions:
– Find a book by [author name]
– Find the loan period for books
Research assistants were trained to administer the
questionnaire and manage the session
The sessions were audiotaped, the work on the
computer was captured
Analysis of results prompted redesign of the Web site
and redesign of research project
10. Qualitative part
Participants were asked to talk more freely
about what features they found interesting,
what terms were familiar/unfamiliar to them,
what spots of the page were obviously links.
Recording of speach and computer moves
11. Observation with unstructured
interview 1/6
Recording equipment
– shy participants
Placing of the researcher
– personality/attitude, dress, guidance
Interaction with the participant - observation
– Ask the person sitting next to you to show you what
do they carry in their purse or pockets.
12. Observation with unstructured
interview 2/6
Interaction with the participant - observation
– Ask the person sitting next to you to show you what
do they carry in their purse or pockets.
– How do you as the researcher feel?
– How do you as the participant feel?
13. Observation with unstructured
interview 3/6
Interaction with the participant - observation
– Ask the person sitting next to you to show you what do they
carry in their purse or pockets.
– How do you as the researcher feel?
– How do you as the participant feel?
– What can you as the researcher do to make the participant
feel comfortable and willing to give the information you need?
– In what circumstances would you as a participant be willing to
comply with the researcher honestly?
14. Observation with unstructured
interview 4/6
Interaction with the participant - interview
– Ask the person sitting next to you: What do you
think of dr. Šauperl’s slides?
15. Observation with unstructured
interview 5/6
Interaction with the participant
– Ask the person sitting next to you: What do you
think of dr. Šauperl’s slides?
– How did you as a researcher ask the question?
– What did you as a participant hear as a question?
16. Observation with unstructured
interview 6/6
Interaction with the participant
– Ask the person sitting next to you: What do you
think of dr. Šauperl’s slides?
– How did you as a researcher ask the question?
– What did you as a participant hear as a question?
– nonverbal clues, timing, place, social “pressure”
17. Interview
Usually a series of interviews with individuals
Structured or unstructured
Usual questions: who, what, where, when, how, why
Only ask things that cannot be observed
New questions emerge during the interview
New issues emerge during and after the interview,
therefore we sometimes need to return to the same
interviewee
18. Content analysis
Analysis of text
– Archival documents describe the library’s
development
– Notes, that a researcher takes during an
observation session report on events during that
session
19. Content analysis: an example
Wilson, T.D. 2004. Talking about the problem: a
content analysis of pre-search interviews. Information
Research, vol.10, no.1, paper 206. [Available at
http://InformationR.net/ir/10-1/paper206.html].
[Accessed 2005-09-25].
– How do researchers talk about their problems in the course of
pre-search interviews and what are the difficulties they
experience in carrying out their own searches?
– Result: search results are better if the librarian (a professional
intermediary searcher) helps the researchers with searching
for relevant literature
20. Content analysis
Transcriptions of recorded observations
– What to write and how
– Illustration: Wilson, Appendix 2
Categorization
– What constitutes a category
– Development of categories
– Illustration: Wilson, Fig. 2
Search for patterns
– What is repetitive and what do we want to see repetitive
– Illustration: Wilson, Fig. 3, Appendix 3
21. Ethical considerations
Confidentiality
– Misuse
– Erroneous interpretation
Successfull researchers establish a very
sincere personal relationship with their
participants. Sometimes they even become
friends. In any case this relationship is based
on MUTUAL RESPECT AND TRUST.
22. Informed consent
Participants and institutions need to agree to
be studied
Formal documents:
– Letter asking for access
– Permission from the institution
– Informed consent letter from individuals
Trust and confidentiality
23. Combination of methods
Rare use of one method only
– Methods supplement each other
– Triangulation (validation)
What is the best combination depends on the
research question
– Learn strengths and weaknesses of each method
24. Reliability
Can study be repeated with the same results?
– Did participants tell the truth?
– Does the event change with time?
– Do we get the same results by gathering data with
different methods? (triangulation)
25. Validity
Do your results represent true picture of
events/processes?
– Is the event meaningful considering the observed
patterns?
– Do we get the same results by gathering data with
different methods? (triangulation)
– Is the emerging theory confirmed with new
observations?
26. Organization of the project
Researcher’s role
Research plan
Preparing for the start
Pilot study
Changes to the original plan
Conducting “real” research
Analysis
Writing report
27. Researcher’s role
Researcher is the research instrument
Obtrusive or covert
Outsider or participant
“Computer with two processors”
– Merging into the setting
– Gathering data
28. Research plan 1/3
Selection of the topic:
– Am I able to conduct such a research project?
– May I gain access to people, organisations,
documents?
– Is the participant or institution neutral?
– Does my research make sense at all?
Research question:
– Describe the problem
– Formulate the question
29. Research plan 2/3
Literature review
– Extensive reading of published research and
methodology
– Selective reading (relevant studies)
– Criteria for reading and evaluating published
research
Learn from errors of other researchers, don’t
make your own mistakes.
30. Research plan 3/3
Theoretical framework
– Which theories are relevant for my research?
– Verification of an existing theory
– Symbolic interactionist grounded theory,
postmodernist theory, hermeneutics
Selection of research/data gathering method
Many loops in the process
31. Pilot study
Learning from mistakes
Testing
– researcher
– research plan
– method
– setting
Improving results:
– re-formulate the research question
– improve research plan
– change or adjust the data gathering/analysis method
32. The real thing!
Conducting research
– How good am I as a research tool
– Data storage or loss
– Differences among participants
34. Notes structure
Observed data Place, date, time, participant, identification of the particular
observation
Description of
participants
What were they like? (sad, dressed in pink)
Description of the
researcher
I was not in a good mood and I posed questions that
implied answers.
Description of the
setting
Very few users in the library.
Topics A detailed description of an interview or observation.
(verbal communication)
Events A detailed description of events, gestures, movements
during an interview, observation (nonverbal
communication)
35. Types of notes
Field notes – taken during observation,
interview
Reflexive notes, journal – taken after leaving
the setting
36. Getting ready for analysis
Transcription
– Usually a computer file
– Preparing audio and sound recordings for analysis
– Textual form
37. Data analysis
During data collection and after collection is completed
– During data collection: preliminary analysis, coding
– After data collection: detailed analysis
– Several cycles of analysis
Content analysis
Processes:
– Data reduction
Separating useful from nonuseful
– Data display (charts, flowcharts, maps, etc.)
Making sense of huge quantity of data
– Making and verifying findings
Going back to original data
38. A little help from … a computer
Software:
– Nud*Ist
– The Ethnograph
– and others
Garbage in– Garbage out!
39. Writing a report
Special characteristics of research also imply
special characteristics of reports
– Rich descriptions, narratives
– Important elements:
Methodology: detailed description of research methods, with
explanation of triangulation
Weaknesses and limitations of selected methods and
research project as a whole:
– Weaknesses of the methods
– Researcher’s weaknesses
40. Sources
Handouts on the Web:
– Selected annotated bibliography of resources in
English, available at the Jinonice library
– A short list of sources not available at the Jinonice
library
– My published work