Chapter 4: Describing Art Formal Analysis, Types, and Styles of Art LEARNING OUTCOMES • Employ a vocabulary of art specific terms and critical approaches to conduct a formal analysis of works of art. • Identify different types of art based on the degree of representation or nonrepresentation a work displays. • Distinguish between variations of representational qualities within a work of art. • Identify characteristics that relate an individual or group of works to a cultural style, stylistic movement or period, or an individual artist’s style. Elements and Principles of Design Line – expressive, implied Shape – organic, geometric, hard- or soft-edged Volume has three dimensions: length, width, and height Mass is the quantity of matter, often meaning its weight Texture – actual or implied Color – saturation, brightness, primary, secondary, scheme (complementary, analogous, monochromatic) Perspective – linear, atmospheric Unity/Variety Balance – symmetrical, asymmetrical Emphasis/movement Rhythm/repetition Formal or critical analysis A formal of critical analysis an examination of … the elements and principles of design present in an artwork and the process of deriving meaning from how those elements and principles are used the ways the visual artist attempts to communicate a concept, idea, or emotion Representational or Non-representational Representational art is a visual reference to the experiential world. The range of representational art is labeled as naturalistic, idealized, or abstract Non-representational or Non-objective is art that does not attempt to present an aspect of the recognizable world. Instead of suggesting a narrative by depicting objects meaning in non-objective art is communicated through shapes, colors, textures, and other elements and principles of design. Style can refer to the general appearance of a work or a group of works that were created in accordance with a specific set of principles about form or appearance. can refer to the art as a whole that was made during a particular era and within a certain culture. does the artwork belong to a more specific stylistic movement? Italian Renaissance? Realism? Abstract Expressionism? can also refer to how elements and principles of design are employed by an individual artist: the visual features of that artist’s work and their characteristics when using a given medium. Four Aspects of a Formal Analysis Description – describe the use of visual elements. Analysis – how are the elements arranged, describe the artist’s use of the principles of design. Interpretation – the combination of what an object symbolizes to the artist and what it means to the viewer. Evaluation – judging whether a work of art is successful given what you have understood from your description, analysis, and interpretation. Using steps 1-3 above can you justify your emotionally response (joyful, disturbing, calm, energeti ...

1. Chapter 4: Describing Art
Formal Analysis, Types, and Styles of Art
LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Employ a vocabulary of art specific terms and critical
approaches to conduct a formal analysis of works of art.
• Identify different types of art based on the degree of
representation or nonrepresentation a work displays.
• Distinguish between variations of representational qualities
within a work of art.
• Identify characteristics that relate an individual or group of
works to a cultural style, stylistic movement or period, or an
individual artist’s style.
Elements and Principles of Design
Line – expressive, implied
Shape – organic, geometric, hard- or soft-edged
Volume has three dimensions: length, width, and height
Mass is the quantity of matter, often meaning its weight
Texture – actual or implied

2. Color – saturation, brightness, primary, secondary, scheme
(complementary, analogous, monochromatic)
Perspective – linear, atmospheric
Unity/Variety
Balance – symmetrical, asymmetrical
Emphasis/movement
Rhythm/repetition
Formal or critical analysis
A formal of critical analysis an examination of …
the elements and principles of design
present in an artwork and
the process of deriving meaning from
how those elements and principles are used
the ways the visual artist attempts to communicate a
concept,
idea, or
emotion
Representational or Non-representational
Representational art is a visual reference to the experiential
world. The range of representational art is labeled as
naturalistic,
idealized, or
abstract

3. Non-representational or Non-objective is art that does not
attempt to present an aspect of the recognizable world. Instead
of suggesting a narrative by depicting objects meaning in non-
objective art is communicated through shapes, colors, textures,
and other elements and principles of design.
Style
can refer to the general appearance of a work or a group of
works that were created in accordance with a specific set of
principles about form or appearance.
can refer to the art as a whole that was made during a particular
era and within a certain culture.
does the artwork belong to a more specific stylistic movement?
Italian Renaissance? Realism? Abstract Expressionism?
can also refer to how elements and principles of design are
employed by an individual artist: the visual features of that
artist’s work and their characteristics when using a given
medium.
Four Aspects of a Formal Analysis
Description – describe the use of visual elements.
Analysis – how are the elements arranged, describe the artist’s
use of the principles of design.
Interpretation – the combination of what an object symbolizes
to the artist and what it means to the viewer.
Evaluation – judging whether a work of art is successful given

4. what you have understood from your description, analysis, and
interpretation. Using steps 1-3 above can you justify your
emotionally response (joyful, disturbing, calm, energetic) to the
artwork?
J.M.W. Turner, Snow Storm: Steam-Boat off a Harbor's Mouth,
oil on canvas, 1842.
Mood created by …
Colors
Lines
Shapes
Brushstroke
Scale and proportion
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Mary Cassatt, Lady at the Tea Table, 1883-85, oil on canvas.
Contrast - color
Unity/variety - shapes
Balance – organization
of composition
Contrast - color
Unity/variety - shapes
Balance – organization

5. of composition
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Representational or Abstract Art
Generally, if the work has visual reference to the phenomenal
world, we consider it to be representational.
Art that shows purposefully simplification, distortion, or
fragmentation of the visual world is referred to as abstract art.
Representational to abstraction is a continuum.
Rosa Bonheur, Ploughing the Nevers, 1849, oil on canvas.
Bonheur’s cows are naturalistic in appearance.
She aims to make them an accurate depiction of the cows she
portrays.
Edward Hicks, The Residence of David Twining, 1846, oil on
canvas, gold leaf.
Hicks had no training as an artist and
visual accuracy was not his primary
goal for his paintings.

6. Exact proportions are exchanged
for simplified shapes in order to
express themes of community.
12
Franz Marc, The Yellow Cow, 1911, oil on canvas.
If we think of representational
and abstraction as a continuum,
at which end does this work rest?
13
Theo van Doesburg, Composition (The Cow), c. 1917, gouache,
oil, and charcoal on paper.
Theo van Doesburg reduces the
linear forces of a cow’s form to
the three forms he thought were
essential components;
vertical, horizontal, and diagonal.
This was his process to create a
strongly abstract picture that titled
Composition VIII (The Cow).
14

7. Theo van Doesburg, Composition VIII (The Cow), c. 1918, oil
on canvas.
Discuss how you see the
cow in this ‘composition’.
Where is the head,
hooves, tail?
15
Statue of Menkaura and Queen Khamerernebty II, 2490-2472
B.C., graywacke.
The subject matter of this Ancient Egyptian sculpture is
a pharaoh and his queen.
A canon is a set of rules, principles, or norms, used to
represent human beings, often gods or rulers. These
principles determine proportions, stance, garments,
as well as other aspects of the human figure.
Idealization is a form of representational art that follows
given canon for the representation of special persons in
a culture.
Marble statue of a kouros, c. 590-580 B.C., marble.
The Ancient Greeks paid great attention to developing their

8. own idealized male figure sculpture based on their
cultural ideal of man is the “measure of all things”.
In what ways is this sculpture representational? Abstract?
17
Polykleitos, Doryphoros from Pompeii, 440 B.C., marble.
In this sculpture the Ancient Greeks developed what they
believed was the epitome of naturalism in the artistic
depiction of the male figure.
We will examine four figures from the ancient Greek styles
Archaic period (800-480 BCE),
to the Early Classical (c. 480-450 BCE),
and then the High Classical period (c. 450-400 BCE),
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Marble statue of a kouros,
c. 590-580 B.C., marble.
The Kroisos Kouros,
c. 530 B.C., marble.
The Kroisos Kouros,
c. 530 B.C., marble.

9. Kritios Boy,
c. 480 B.C.,
Marble.
Contrapposto is the term for the representation of the weight
shift of the knees and hips that occurs when standing with one
leg at ease or walking.
This pose places the figure’s weight on
one foot, setting off a series of adjustments to the hips and
shoulders that produce a subtle S-curve; a stance many of us use
everyday.
Kritios Boy, c. 480 B.C., Marble.
Kritios Boy,
c. 480 B.C.,
Marble.
Polykleitos,
Doryphoros from
Pompeii,
440 B.C., marble.
Polykleitos, Doryphoros from Pompeii,
440 B.C., marble.

10. Idealized?
Representational?
Naturalistic?
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Non-Representational or Non-Objective Art
Non-Representational or Non-Objective Art are two terms
that are used interchangeably.
Each term describes, or is a label for, art that does not
attempt to represent or refer to the visible world.
To avoid confusion we will use the term non-objective art.
Wassily Kandinsky, Blue Mountain, 1908-09, oil on canvas.
Is Kandinsky’s painting Blue Mountain
an example of non-objective art?
25
Wassily Kandinsky, Angel of the Last Judgement, 1911, oil on
cardboard.
Do you think that Kandinsky was
able to use color, line, shape,

11. unity and variety to communicate
something of human emotion in
this painting?
26
Wassily Kandinsky, Red Spot II, 1921, oil on canvas.
Style
The three main categories of artistic style are:
Period styles that derive their characteristic structure from the
culture prevalent
during a particular time period.
Regional styles that reflect the influences of the culture
prevalent in a particular place.
Formal styles are used to denote an individual or group of
artists working with
the elements and principles of design to reach similar goals and
are not necessarily characteristic of either one place or one
time.
Style is the term used for characteristic, or a number of
characteristics, that we can identify as constant, recurring, or
coherent with a particular group, or culture, or with an artist’s
work at a specific time.
Regional or Cultural Style
Art is a product of its time and place.

12. Cultural style combines period and regional style in a unique
and distinctive way.
SUPPLEMENT: Map of the Middle and Near East
Standard of Ur, 26th century B.C., “War” panel, 2600 B.C.,
shell, limestone, lapis lazuli, bitumen.
This stone panel is one example of the cultural style of the
Ancient Near East.
A composite view represents portions of the body shown in
profile and other parts of the body in frontal view.
Music Stele, c. 2100 B.C., limestone.
This stele, or stone slab, depicts Gudea with
attendants in one register, or horizontal band of space,
and musicians below.
composite view
32

13. Sargon II and dignitary, 722-705 B.C.E, limestone.
Hierarchical proportion is the use of different sizes of figures to
indicate each figures importance. The larger the figure, the
greater the importance.
Acropolis of Athens.
Cultural Style:
Ancient Greece and Rome
The height, or what was once considered the ‘best’ or pinnacle,
of Ancient Greek art is referred to as Classical.
Today, most Ancient Greek scholars no longer think of one sub-
style being “better” than another.
An acropolis is the highest point in an ancient Greek city and
houses sacred buildings.
The most famous is the Acropolis in Athens, Greece.
Ancient Greek art has many stylistic sub-divisions, including:
Geometric (900-700 BCE)
Orientalizing (700-600BCE
Archaic (600-480 BCE)
Classical
Early Classical (480-450 BCE),
High Classical (450-400 BCE),
Late Classical (400-323 BCE)
Hellenistic (323-31 BCE)
SUPPLEMENT MAP: Greek stylistic sub-divisions

14. Praxiteles, Apollo Sauroctonus, c. 350-340 B.C., marble.
The Late Classical style of Ancient Greek art
represents the human figure as more dynamic,
more expressive, more emotional, more dramatic
than the earlier High Classical style.
Comparatively one figure can be seen as calm and the other
more dynamic.
Discuss the choices made by the artist to create those different
expressions for each sculpture.
37
Glycon of Athens, Hercules Farnese, c. 216 AD, marble.
The Hercules Farnese is an example the Roman Republican
style of art.
The dates of this style overlap with Ancient Greek art,
but it’s geographical location, the Roman Empire,
influenced the artists to work in a different style.

15. Anti-idealized representation has a frank and
unvarnished study of individuals that are often older,
more mature citizens.
38
Togatus Barberini, first century AD, marble.
SUPPLEMENT: Examples of Roman Republican period
sculpture.
Veristic,
or verisimilitude,
means the artist strives
to make a truthful
rendition of a person’s
likeness.
Augustus of Prima Porta, 1st century AD, white marble.
This work dates to the Early Imperial era (27 BCE-197 CE)
Idealization of the human figure is used for representation of
rulers like Emperor Augustus and emphasizes a mental
conception of beauty, a standard of perfection.
Early Imperial era (27 BCE-197 CE)

16. Idealization of the human figure is used for representation of
rulers like Emperor Augustus and emphasizes a mental
conception of beauty, a standard of perfection.
Overall, Roman art is, using broad terminology, naturalistic.
41
The Tetrarchs, 300 AD, porphyry.
Tetrarchy means ”the rule of four”.
This sculpture represents the four co-ruling
emperors, or tetrarchs, who worked together
to rule the four divisions of the vast Roman Empire.
SUPPLEMENT MAP
Marble portrait head of the Emperor Constantine I, c. 325-370
A.D., marble.
SUPPLEMENT: Indian Subcontinent Maps
Elephants on North Torana, Sanchi, India.

17. Stupas are dome-shaped shrines used to house Buddhist relics.
Yakshi are female nature figures and are represented at the
entrance gates to a stupa.
Standing Bodhisattva Maitreya.
A bodhisattva is a being in Buddhism who has achieved
enlightenment but chooses to remain in this world to help others
advance their spirituality.
Maitreya is derived from the Sanskrit word for “friend.”
Buddhism is a religion and philosophy that developed from the
teachings of the Buddha (Sanskrit: “Awakened One”), a teacher
who lived in northern India between the mid-6th and mid-4th
centuries BCE.
Located in Gandhara, known today as Pakistan.
47
Period Styles
Period styles derive their characteristic structure from the

18. culture prevalent
during a particular time period or era.
SUPPLEMENTAL MAP: Romanesque and Gothic Eras in
Europe
The term Romanesque means
Roman-like and identifies European
art and architecture from 1000 CE to 1000 CE.
Gothic is the term for the art and
architecture of Europe, especially northern Europe, from 1100
CE - 1300 CE.
Romanesque and Gothic Eras in Europe
SUPPLEMENTAL: Gothic Cathedral floor plan
Christianity is one of the world’s major religions and stems
from the life, teachings, and death of Jesus of Nazareth (the
Christ, or the Anointed One of God) in the 1st century CE.
A portal is a doorway.

19. Gislebertus, Last Judgement, 1130-45, stone.
A tympanum is the semicircular area above the doors of a
cathedral.
Gislebertus, Last Judgement, 1130-45, stone.
Saints Martin, Jerome, and Gregory, c. 1220-1230, stone.
These Gothic sculptures from a cathedral portal
show greater naturalism than the Romanesque
tympanum figures in the Last Judgment.
54
Masaccio, Holy Trinity, 1425, fresco.
A renaissance is a re-birth or re-awakening.
The Italian Renaissance was a conscious and purposeful revival
of the ideals of Greece and Rome, especially humanism.
Humanism is the belief in the value of humans and their
endeavors. Artists of the Italian Renaissance sought ways to
express themselves as individuals in their art.
Orthogonal lines
Linear perspective

20. Raphael, Madonna and Child Enthroned with Saints, c. 1504, oil
and gold on wood.
Humanism of the Italian Renaissance both
celebrated human intellectual and creative
accomplishments and embraced and
emphasized the humanity of Christ.
Titian, Madonna and Child, c. 1508, oil on wood.
Formal Style
Stylistic Periods or Movements
We will look at examples of stylistic periods;
Realism
Expression(ism)
Abstract Expressionism
Formal Style: Realism

21. Naturalism and Realism mean two different ideas when used in
the context of the visual arts.
Naturalism means of or pertaining to the appearance of nature,
without idealization. The artist strives to make the appearance
of the objects represented corresponds to nature, … to how the
subject of the artwork looks in the natural world.
Realism refers to artworks that relay information or opinions
about the underlying social or philosophical reality of the
subject matter. These works may look naturalistic, but they have
a societal component as well.
Gustave Courbet, A Burial at Ornans, 1849-50, oil on canvas.
The École des Beaux-Arts was the nationally institutionalized
body in control of training and exhibition of art in France.
Gustave Courbet, The Stone Breakers, 1849, oil on canvas.
Ilya Repin, Barge Haulers on the Volga, 1870-73, oil on canvas.
Realism, vs. realism is a stylistic movement that appears across
the western world during the 19th century.
This work is an example of realism from 19th-century Russia.
62

22. Wilhelm Leibl, Three Women in Church, 1878-82, tempera on
mahogany.
Wilhelm Leibl’s painting of rural peasant women
is an example of realism from 19th-century Germany.
George Bellows, Cliff Dwellers, 1913, oil on canvas.
Edward Steichen, Moonlight: The Pond, 1904, platinum print
with applied color.
Gum bichromate is photographic
print process which requires
gum Arabic and bichromate
to be brushed on the surface
of the light-sensitive paper and
allows manipulation of the
final image.
Lucas Samaras, Transformation, 1973, manipulated polaroid
SX-70 print
Lucas Samaras used his fingers and a
stylus to rub and smear the image on
a self-developing polaroid print, thereby
manipulating the photograph to
and create his final image.

23. 66
Expression(ism)
Expressionism in the visual arts gives up a measure of
naturalism in favor of emotional content.
Unknown artist, The Great Goddess Durga Slaying the Buffalo
Demon, c. 1750, opaque watercolor and gold and silver colored
metallic paint on paper.
Pieta Liebieghaus, c. 1390, walnut, remnants of original
polychromy.
Andachtsbilder is the German term for devotional images used
to aid prayer.
SUPPLEMENT: Expressionism in Germany
Neue Sachlichkeit, or New Objectivity
George Grosz, Fit for Active Service, George
Grosz, The White General, 1919,
1916-17, pen and ink. pen and ink.
Abstract Expressionism
Abstract Expressionism was a stylistic
movement that emphasized the
physical properties of the medium used

24. as opposed to pictorial narrative.
Clyfford Still, Untitled, 1957, oil on canvas
Jackson Pollock, The Deep, 1953
Mark Rothko, No. 61 (Rust and Blue), 1953
Individual Style
A catalogue raisonné is a detailed, comprehensive list of the
artist’s work.
Johannes Vermeer, The Geographer, 1669, oil on canvas.
Thirty-four paintings have been attributed to Vermeer.
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Vermeer, Woman in Blue Reading a Letter, c. 1662-3, oil on
canvas.
Vermeer, The Milkmaid, c. 1657,
oil on canvas.
Vincent van Gogh, Wheat Field with Cypresses, 1889, oil on
canvas.

25. Vincent van Gogh, Wheat Field with Cypresses, 1889, oil on
canvas.
Impasto is the thick
application of paint.
Summary
We outlined a structured approach to understanding an artwork
by using
description, analysis, interpretation, and evaluation to help
recognize how works of art can carry meaning.
We established representational and non-objective as the two
broadest categories of the style of an artwork.
We confirmed that the degree of abstraction in a
representational work is relative, on a continuum, and that
idealization is an off-shoot of representational work that shows
an adjustment of accuracy toward a
mental conception of beauty, a standard of perfection.
Summary
We recognized three broad categories of style as
regional, period, and personal style.
Cultural or Regional examples we examined were form the
ancient Near East, Ancient Greece and Rome, and the Indian
sub-continent.

26. Period styles we examined included the Romanesque and Gothic
periods of Europe and the Italian Renaissance.
19th-century Realism (Germany, Russia, and the United States)
and Expressionism (Germany and the United States)