1. UNIT - II
Materials and Construction
- Basavaraj S Tavade

2. Construction
materials
Natural
Wood
Rock /
Stones
Natural
sand
Artificial
Cement
Artificial
sand
Bricks
Ceramics
Glass
Steel

3. Stone:
• Stone is available in the form of Rocks
• Later it is cut to required shape and size to use
as a building material
Classification of Stones / Rocks
1. Geological
2. Physical
3. Chemical

4. 1. Geological Classification
Based on their origin of formation, there
are three types of Rocks
a. Igneous Rock
b. Sedimentary Rock
c. Metamorphic Rock

5. 1.a. Igneous Rock
These rocks are formed by cooling
and solidifying of rock masses from their
molten magnetic condition of the material
of the earth
• These rocks have crystalline and non-
crystalline structure
• The rocks which are cooled under thick cover
form crystalline structure.
• The rocks which are cooled at the top surface
of earth form non crystalline structure.

6. Granite, Trap and Basalt are the examples for
Igneous Rock
Basalt Basalt
Granite

7. Trap Rock

8. 1.b. Sedimentary Rock
As the name says this types of rocks are
formed by accumulation of sediment
• The sediment is carried by wind and water
• They represent a bedded or stratified structure
sand stone, lime stone, mud stone are the
examples for sedimentary rock

10. Sandstone

11. 1.c. Metamorphic Rock
• These rocks are formed by the change in
character of the pre-existing rocks.
• Igneous as well as sedimentary rocks change
their character when they are subject to great
heat and pressure.
Quartzite, Schist, Slate, Marble and Gneiss
are the examples for this type of rock

12. Schist
Quartzite

14. 2. Physical Classification
Based on their appearance, there are three
types of Rocks
a. Stratified Rocks
b. Un-stratified Rocks
c. Foliated Rocks

15. 2.a. Stratified Rocks: These rocks posses
planes of stratification or cleavage and such
rocks can be easily split along these
planes.
Ex: sedimentary rocks
2.b. Un-stratified rocks: The structure may be
crystalline granular or compact granular.
Examples: Igneous rocks and Sedimentary
2.c. Foliated Rocks: These rocks have a
tendency to split up in a definite direction
only.
Ex: Metamorphic rocks.

16. 3. Chemical Classification
Based on their Chemical composition,
there are three types of Rocks
a. Siliceous rocks
b. Argillaceous Rocks
c. Calcareous rocks

17. 3.a. Siliceous Rocks: the main content of these
rocks is Silica.
they are hard and durable
ex : Granite, Trap etc
3.b. Argillaceous Rocks: the argil (clay) content
predominates
this type of rocks are brittle.
ex: laterites etc
3.c. Calcareous Rocks: the calcium carbonate
predominates
ex: lime stone, marble

18. Qualities of a good building stone
1. Crushing strength: A good building stone should have
enough strength to carry the load without failure.
2. Appearance: Good building stone should have
uniform colour and should preserve the colour for
long-time.
3. Durability: A good building stone should be durable. It
should withstand the effects due to wet and dry,
dissolved gases in rain, high wind velocity.
4. Specific gravity: For a good building stone the
specific gravity should be greater than 2.4

19. Qualities of a good building stone
5. Texture: A good building stone should have compact
fine crystalline structure.
6. Dressing: It should be easy to dress so that cost of
dressing is reduced.
7. Absorption: Building stones should not be porous
and water absorption should be less than 5%.
8. Hardness: The stone used in floors & pavement
should be able to resist abrasive forces caused by
movement of men and materials over them

20. Uses of stones
1. Structure: Stones are used for foundations, walls,
columns, lintels, arches, roofs, floors, damp proof
course etc.
2. Face works
3. Paving stones: These are used to cover floor of
building, paving of roads, foot paths etc.
4. Basic material: Stones are disintegrated and converted
to form a basic material for cement concrete, morum
for roads.
5. Misalliances: Stones are also used for
(i) ballast for railways
(ii)Blocks in the construction of bridges, piers,
abutments, retaining walls, light houses, dams etc.

21. Common building stones
The commonly used building stones are Basalt &
trap, Granite, Laterite and marble etc.
Basalt & trap:
• The structure is medium to fine grained & compact.
• color varies from dark gray to black.
• The density varies from 1800 to 2900 kg/m3 .
• The compressive strength varies from 200 to 350
N/mm².
• They are used for road works and aggregate for
concrete.

22. Common building stones
Granite:
• The structure is crystalline, fine to coarse grained.
• color varies from light gray to pink.
• The compressive strength varies from 100 to 250
N/mm².
• They are used for flooring, monument etc.
Marble:
• It can take good polish.
• It is available in pleasing colors like white and pink.
• The compressive strength varies from 70 to 75
N/mm².
• They are used for ornamental works.

23. Ornamental works

24. Monument work

25. Common building stones
Laterite:
• It is having porous and sponges structure.
• It contains high % of iron oxide.
• color may be brown, red, yellow and gray.
• The density is around 1800 kg/m3 .
• When this type of stone is used as a building stone,
its outer surface should be plastered.

26. LATERITE
STONE

27. Sand:
Sand is formed by the decomposition of sand
stones due to various effects of weather.
Types of sand
1. Natural sand
2. Artificial sand

28. Natural Sand:
Sand obtained from pits, sea shores and river
bed is known as Natural sand
River Sand:
• This sand is obtained from beds of rivers.
• River sand consist of fine rounded grains
• Color of river sand is almost white
• As the river sand is available in clean
condition, it is widely used for all purposes.

29. Natural Sand:
Sea sand:
• This sand is obtained from sea shores.
• Sea sand also consist of rounded grains.
• Color of sea sand is light brown color.
• Sea sand consist of salts which attract the
moisture from the atmosphere and causes
dampness, efflorescence and disintegration of
work.
• Sea sand is not recommended for engineering
works.

30. Artificial sand:
• Artificial sand is manufactured by crushing
natural stone & grading properly through
sieve.
• The surface of manufactured sand is rough on
account of which it develops very good bond
with cement

32. Advantages of Artificial Sand:
1. Silt is negligible as compared to natural sand.
2. It is available during rainy season.
3. It forms a good bond with cement.
4. It gives more compressive strength compared
to natural sand.
5. It helps to maintain natural bed of river by
contributing to the huge demand of sand in
construction industry.

33. The properties of a Good sand
1. It should be chemically inert.
2. It should be free from organic and vegetable
matter.
3. It should be free from salt.
4. It should be well graded.
5. It should be hard.

34. Fine uniform
Coarse uniform
Well Graded

35. Importance of Sand in construction work
1. It increases the volume of mortar, there by making
the mortar economical.
2. It prevents the excessive shrinkage of cement paste
& avoids cracks during setting.
3. Fine sand occupies the voids in coarse aggregate and
makes concrete a solid waterproof material.

36. Artificial sand

37. Steel:
• Steel is an alloy of iron & carbon containing
carbon from 0.25 to 1.25%.
• Steels are highly elastic, ductile, malleable,
forgeable and weld-able.
Types of steel
1. Mild steel.
2. TOR steel
3. High tensile steel

38. 1.Mild steel:
• Mild steel is a plain carbon steel.
• The % of carbon alloy is <0.25%
• It used as structural as well as non-structural
steel in form of various sections like I section,
channel, angle and in form of round bars as a
reinforcement in concrete.
• Mild steel bars are designated as Fe-250.
• Where 250 is yield strength in N/mm²
• Fe denotes the ferrous metal.

39. Mild steel different section

40. I section
channel
angle

41. 2.TOR steel:
• TOR is a brand name - Toristeg Steel Corporation of
Luxembourg.
• TOR steel is a Cold Twisted Deformed (CTD)
• The name (TOR) became synonymous with Cold
Twisted Deformed (CTD) steel bars due to
popularity.
• When mild steel plain bars are subjected to cold
working by tensioning and twisting, it raises both
yield and ultimate strength.

42. TOR steel:
• These bars are also known as high yield
strength deformed(HYSD) bars.
• These bars available in two grades namely
Fe-415 and Fe-500
• They are available in diameters 8mm to
40mm
• These bars are extensively used as
reinforcement in R.C.C.

43. Round plain steel bars dominated the construction
industry till seventies.
Thereafter CTD (TOR Steel) dominated the
industry till nineties.
Nowadays TMT(Thermo Mechanically Treated
steel) are the most popular due to its advantages
over CTD (TOR) such as high strength and
corrosion resistance.

44. HYSD Bars

45. 3.High Tensile steel wires(tendons):
• Two wires are spun together to form the strand.
• A group of strands or wires are placed together to
form a pre-stressing tendon.
• A group of tendons form a
prestressing cable.
• Their ultimate strength ranges
from 1500 to 2350 N/mm²

46. 2 wire strand
3 wire strand
7 wire strand
Tendon

47. Uses of steel:
1. As a structural material in trusses, beams and in the
form of various sections.
2. As a non structural component for grills, windows,
and doors.
3. In the fabrications of steel pipes, tanks etc.
4. Used as a corrugated sheets which act as roof over
the structure.
5. Mild steel is used as a distribution steel and TOR
steel is used as a main steel in R.C.C
6. High tensile steel cables are used in pre-stressed
concrete.

48. Concrete:
• Concrete is obtained by mixing cement, fine
aggregate(sand), coarse aggregate(crushed stone) and
water in a definite proportion.
There are mainly four types of cement concrete
1. Plain cement concrete (P.C.C)
2. Reinforced cement concrete (R.C.C)
3. Precast Concrete.
4. Prestressed concrete.

49. Plain cement concrete:
• It is a mixture of cement, fine aggregate, coarse
aggregate and water.
• The grades of concrete are M5, M10, M15, M20,
M25 etc.
• Where “M” stands for mix and number for
compressive strength of that mix after 28days,
expressed in N/mm².
• PCC has very less tensile strength so it is not used
for the flexural members.
• It is used in foundation, floors and construction of
road pavement

50. cement
fine aggregate
coarse aggregate

51. Reinforced cement concrete:

52. Reinforced cement concrete:
• In this type of concrete, a steel is reinforced
into the PCC.
• The concrete takes the compressive stress and
steel tensile stress.
• The minimum grade of concrete to be used is
M20.
• The concrete manufactured on site is termed as
“In-situ concrete”.

53. Precast Concrete:
• In this type of concrete the structural elements are
already casted in casting yards located at some
distance from the site or in precast concrete factories.
• Due to controlling measures employed in factory
regarding quality and quantity of materials used,
precast members offer the required strength,
durability and attractive appearance.
• The examples are concrete compound poles,
electricity poles, slabs, Beams and girders, manhole
covers etc.

56. Prestressed Concrete :
• The term “Prestressed Concrete” is applied to
those reinforced concrete members in which
concrete is subjected to compressive stresses,
before the external load are applied
• The compressive stresses are induced by two
methods
1. Pre-tensioning
2. Post- tensioning

58. Pre-tensioning:
• The construction process in which tension is
given by hydraulic jack or by other means to
steel reinforcements or steel cables in the
beginning and then concreting work is done.
• The pre-tensioning is preferably done in the
members of structure having long span.

59. Post-tensioning:
• The construction process in which concreting
work is done in the beginning then tension is
given by hydraulic jack or by other means to
steel reinforcements or steel cables.
• The post-tensioning is preferably done in the
members of structure having lesser span.

60. Pre-Tensioning

61. Post-Tensioning

62. Cement:
• Cement is a binding material.
• The cement is obtained by burning calcareous and
argillaceous material at a very high temperature
and then grinding the clinker with gypsum to
produce a fine powder.
• On setting cement resembles a variety of
sandstone found in Portland of England and is
therefore called Portland cement.

63. Manufacturing process of cement

64. Manufacturing process of cement

65. Chemical Properties/ chemical composition:
The cement consists of the following chemical
compounds.
1. Tri-calcium Silicate 3CaO.SiO2 (C3S) 40%
2. Di-calcium Silicate 2CaO.SiO2 (C2S) 30%
3. Tri-calcium Aluminate 3CaO.Al2O3(C3A) 11%
4. Tetra-calcium Aluminate 4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3 11%
Ferrite (C4AF)

66. Functions of Chemical Compounds :
• C3A is the first to react with water and cause initial set. It
generates great amount of heat.
• C3S hydrates early and develops early strength in the
first 28 days, this also generates the heat.
• C2S is last to hydrate. It hydrates slowly and is
responsible for increase in ultimate strength. This
hydration continuous till one year.
• C4AF is a inactive compound.
• Gypsum is added to cement to control the initial setting
time. Its % varies from 3 to 5% depending on the type of
cement to be produced.

67. Physical Properties :
The following are the physical properties as per
IS 269-1989
1. Fineness.
2. Setting time.
3. Soundness.
4. Crushing strength.

68. Physical Properties :
1. Fineness:
– It is measured in terms of percentage of weight
retained after sieving the cement through 90 microns
sieve.
– According to IS
code specifications
weight retained on
the sieve should not
be more than 10%.

69. Physical Properties :
2. Setting time.
setting time is classified as below.
a) Initial setting time : It is time taken by the cement
from the addition of water to the starting of loosing its
plasticity.
Initial setting time should be more than 30 min.
b) Final setting time : It is time lapsed from the addition
of water to complete loss of plasticity.
Final setting time should not be more than
600minutes(10 hours)

70. Vicat Apparatus is used for finding the setting times.

71. Procedure to find the setting time:
• Before finding initial and final setting time it is
necessary to determine how much amount of water to
be added to get a standard consistency.
• For this 300gm of cement is mixed with 30% water &
cement paste is prepared and is filled in the mould
which rests on non porous plate.
• The plunger is attached to the movable rod of Vicat
apparatus and gently lowered to touch the paste in
the mould then the plunger is allowed to move freely.
• if the penetration is 5mm to 7mm from the bottom of
the mould then the cement is having standard
consistency.

72. Procedure to find the setting time:
Initial Setting time:
o 300gms of cement is thoroughly mixed with 0.85%
times the water for the standard consistency & vicat
mould is completely filled & top surface is levelled.
o 1mm square needle is fixed to the rod & gently
placed over the paste. Then it is freely allowed to
penetrate.
o In the beginning the needle penetrates completely but
as the time lapses the paste start loosing its plasticity
& offers resistance to penetration.
o When the needle can penetrate upto 5 to 7mm from
bottom of the paste, experiment is stopped & this
lapsed time is noted as Initial setting time.

73. Procedure to find the setting time:
Final Setting time:
o For final setting time the 1 mm square needle is
replaced with annular ring.
o This test is performed on the same specimen which
used for finding the initial setting time.
o Time at which the annular ring fails to make a
impression on the specimen is considered as the final
setting time.

75. 3. Soundness.
• This test is conducted to find free lime in cement.
• Le-Chatelier Apparatus is used for finding the
soundness of cement.

77. Procedure to find the soundness of Cement:
• Le-Chatelier mould is placed on a glass plate.
• by using 0.78 times water required for the standard
consistency, a cement paste is prepared and filled in
the Le-Chatelier mould.
• The another end is also covered with glass plate & a
small weight is placed over it (50gm)
• Then the whole assembly is kept under water for 24
hours. The temperature of water should be 24 to 500C
• Before placing the assembly into water, note down
the distance between indicators.

78. Procedure to find the soundness of Cement:
• Then again place the mould in the water & heat the
assembly such that water reaches to its boiling point
in 30 min, boiling of water is continued for 1 hour.
• The mould is removed and allowed to cool.
• The distance between the two indicators is measured.
• The value should not exceed the 10mm.
• If it exceeds then the cement is said to be unsound.

80. Crushing strength cement :

81. Uses of cement :
• Cement slurry is used for filling cracks in concrete
structures.
• Cement mortar is used for masonry work, plastering.
• Cement concrete is used for the construction of
various structures like buildings, bridges, water tanks.
• Cement is used to manufacture lamp posts, telephone
posts, railway sleepers etc.
• It is useful for the construction of roads, footpaths,
courts for various sports etc.

82. Types of cement :
1. Rapid Hardening Cement
2. Sulphate - resisting Cement
3. Low heat cement
4. Quick setting cement
5. Colored cement

83. Types of cement :
1. Rapid Hardening Cement:
– the cement start setting within 5 minutes after
adding water and becomes hard mass within 30
minutes.
– This cement is used where high strength is
required instantly in initial stages.
– For example : repair works, early removal of
formwork etc.

84. Types of cement :
2. Sulphate - resisting Cement :
– This type of cement contains higher amount of
silicate, because higher amount of silicate is
effective in fighting back the attacks of sulphates.
– This is used for construction of sewage treatment
works, marine structure and foundations in soil
having large sulphate content.

85. Types of cement :
3. Low heat cement :
-- This cement hardens slowly and produces less
heat than the other cement while reacting with water.
-- this can be used in mass concreting works like
construction of dams, retaining wall, bridge
abutment etc.
4. Quick setting cement :
-- the cement sets very quickly
-- this is due to the reduction of Gypsum content in
the normal portland cement
-- it is used for underwater constructions.

86. Bricks:
• Brick is obtained by molding good clay into a
block which is dried and then burnt.
Chemical Composition of Brick:
1. Alumina 20 to 30 %
2. Silica 50 to 60 %
3. Lime < 5%
4. Oxide of iron 5 to 6 %
5. Magnesia small quantity

87. Functions of Chemical Compounds of Bricks :
1. Alumina constituent imparts plasticity to the clay so
that it can be moulded.
– If alumina is present in excess, with inadequate
quantity of sand, the raw bricks shrink and warp
during drying / burning and become too hard when
burnt.
2. The presence of Silica constituent prevents cracking,
shrinking and warping of raw bricks. It thus imparts
uniform shape to the bricks.
– The excess of silica destroys the cohesion between
particles and the bricks become brittle.

88. Functions of Chemical Compounds of Bricks :
3. The lime prevents shrinkage of raw bricks.
– Lime helps to melt the sand at the kiln temperature, Such
fused/melt sand works as a hard cementing material for brick
particles.
– The excess of lime causes the brick to melt and hence its
shape is lost.
4. Oxide of iron imparts red colour to the bricks.
˗ The excess of oxide of iron makes the bricks dark blue or
blackish.
5. A small quantity of magnesia in brick material imparts
yellow tint to the bricks and decreases shrinkage.
• excess of magnesia leads to the decay of bricks.

89. Manufacturing of Clay Bricks :

91. Tests for Bricks :
1. Absorption of water : <20%
2. Crushing strength : For normal brick – 35kg/cm2
: For superior bricks - 70 to 140 kg/cm2
3. Hardness : No impression
4. Presence of Soluble salts: the brick should not show any
grey or white deposits.
5. Shape & Size : standard shape and size with
sharp edges.
6. Soundness : the brick should give a clear
ringing sound when struck
each other.
7. Structure : the structure should be
homogeneous, compact, & free
from any defects

92. Classification of Bricks :
Bricks are classified into two categories
1. Un-burnt or Sundried bricks
2. Burnt Bricks.
– Un-burnt or Sundried bricks are dried with the help of heat
received from sun after the process of molding.
– Un-burnt bricks can only be used in the construction of
temporary & cheap structures.
– Un-burnt bricks should not be used at places exposed to heavy
rains.

93. Classification of Bricks :
2. Burnt Bricks: Burnt bricks are classified into following types
2.a First Class brick :
• these bricks are table molded & of standard size & shape.
• The surface and edges of the bricks are sharp, square,
smooth & straight.
• This type of bricks are used for superior work of
permanent nature.

94. Classification of Bricks :
2.b Second Class brick :
• these bricks are ground molded.
• The surface of bricks is rough and shape is slightly
irregular.
• These bricks are commonly used at places where brick
work is to provided with a coat of plaster.
2.c Third Class Brick :
• These bricks are ground molded.
• These bricks are usually under burnt.
• These bricks are not hard and they have rough surfaces
with irregular and distorted edges.
• These are used for unimportant and temporary structures
and where rain fall is not heavy.

95. Classification of Bricks :
2.d Fourth Class brick :
– These are over burnt bricks with irregular shape & dark
color.
– These bricks are used as a aggregate for concrete in
foundation, floors, roads etc.

96. Special Types of Bricks :
a. Squint Brick:
this type of bricks are used at the corners of masonry
wall as corner stone.
the squint type of brick is as shown below.

98. Special Types of Bricks :
b. Bull nosed Bricks :
these bricks are used to form rounded Quoins (Corner
stone)
the bull nosed type of brick is as shown below.

99. Special Types of Bricks :
c. Perforated Bricks :
the aperture of the perforations is such that it gives
maximum amount of ventilation, but does not permit the entry
of rats.
these bricks are used for constructing load bearing
wall of low building, panel wall/partition wall for multistoried
building.

100. Perforated Bricks Wall

101. Special Types of Bricks :
d. Hollow Bricks :
- the bricks are provided with one or more cavities.
- hollow bricks are light in weight.
the hollow type of brick is as shown below.

102. • According to Indian standards, the size of brick
without thickness of mortar joint is 19cm X 9cm X
9cm with a suitable frog for proper locking of one
layer over the other.
• The depression provided in the face of brick during
its manufacturing is known as frog of bricks.
• Depth of a frog in a brick is 10mm to 20 mm.