Crane Operation Manual

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GATEWAY INDUSTRIAL & PETRO-GAS
INSTITUTE, ONI, OGUN WATERSIDE
OGUN STATE
CRANE OPERATION MANUAL
COMPILED
BY
BAMISHAYE B. E.

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CRANE
A crane is a type of machine, generally equipped with a hoist, wire ropes or chains,
and sheaves, that can be used both to lift and lower materials and to move them
horizontally. It is mainly used for lifting heavy things and transporting them to other places.
It uses one or more simple machines to create mechanical advantage and thus move
loads beyond the normal capability of a human. Cranes are commonly employed in
the transport industry for the loading and unloading of freight, in the construction industry
for the movement of materials and in the manufacturing industry for the assembling
of heavy equipment.
The first construction cranes were invented by the Ancient Greeks and were powered by
men or beasts of burden, such as donkeys. These cranes were used for the construction
of tall buildings. Larger cranes were later developed, employing the use of human tread
wheels, permitting the lifting of heavier weights. In the High Middle Ages, harbour cranes
were introduced to load and unload ships and assist with their construction – some were
built into stone towers for extra strength and stability. The earliest cranes were
constructed from wood, but cast iron and steel took over with the coming of the Industrial
Revolution.
For many centuries, power was supplied by the physical exertion of men or animals,
although hoists in watermills and windmills could be driven by the harnessed natural
power. The first 'mechanical' power was provided by steam engines, the earliest steam
crane being introduced in the 18th or 19th century, with many remaining in use well into
the late 20th century. Modern cranes usually use internal combustion engines or electric
motors and hydraulic systems to provide a much greater lifting capability than was
previously possible, although manual cranes are still utilised where the provision of power
would be uneconomic.
Cranes exist in an enormous variety of forms – each tailored to a specific use. Sometimes
sizes range from the smallest jib cranes, used inside workshops, to the tallest tower
cranes, used for constructing high buildings. For a while, mini - cranes are also used for
constructing high buildings, in order to facilitate constructions by reaching tight spaces.

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Finally, we can find larger floating cranes, generally used to build oil rigs and salvage
sunken ships.
This article also covers lifting machines that do not strictly fit the above definition of a
crane, but are generally known as cranes, such as stacker cranes and loader cranes.
History
Ancient Greece
Greco-Roman Trispastos ("Three-pulley-crane"), the
simplest crane type (150 kg load)
The crane for lifting heavy loads was invented by
the Ancient Greeks in the late 6th century BC. The
archaeological record shows that no later than c.515 BC
distinctive cuttings for both lifting tongs and lewis
irons begin to appear on stone blocks of Greek temples.
Since these holes point at the use of a lifting device, and since they are to be found either
above the center of gravity of the block, or in pairs equidistant from a point over the center
of gravity, they are regarded by archaeologists as the positive evidence required for the
existence of the crane.
The introduction of the winch and pulley hoist soon lead to a widespread replacement
of ramps as the main means of vertical motion. For the next two hundred years, Greek
building sites witnessed a sharp drop in the weights handled, as the new lifting technique
made the use of several smaller stones more practical than of fewer larger ones. In
contrast to the archaic period with its tendency to ever-increasing block sizes, Greek
temples of the classical age like the Parthenon invariably featured stone blocks weighing
less than 15-20 metric tons. Also, the practice of erecting large monolithic columns was
practically abandoned in favour of using several column drums.
Although the exact circumstances of the shift from the ramp to the crane technology
remain unclear, it has been argued that the volatile social and political conditions

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of Greece were more suitable to the employment of small, professional construction
teams than of large bodies of unskilled labour, making the crane more preferable to the
Greek polis than the more labour-intensive ramp which had been the norm in the
autocratic societies of Egypt or Assyria.
The first unequivocal literary evidence for the existence of the compound pulley system
appears in the Mechanical Problems (Mech. 18, 853a32-853b13) attributed
to Aristotle (384–322 BC), but perhaps composed at a slightly later date. Around the same
time, block sizes at Greek temples began to match their archaic predecessors again,
indicating that the more sophisticated compound pulley must have found its way to Greek
construction sites by then.
Ancient Rome
Greco-Roman Pentaspastos ("Five-pulley-crane"), a
medium-sized variant (ca. 450 kg load)
Reconstruction of a 10.4 m high Roman Polyspastos powered by a tread wheel at Bonn,
Germany.
The heyday of the crane in ancient times came during the Roman Empire, when
construction activity soared and buildings reached enormous dimensions. The Romans
adopted the Greek crane and developed it further. We are relatively well informed about
their lifting techniques, thanks to rather lengthy accounts by the engineers Vitruvius (De
Architectura 10.2, 1-10) and Heron of Alexandria (Mechanica 3.2-5). There are also two
surviving reliefs of Roman tread wheel cranes, with the Haterii tombstone from the late
first century AD being particularly detailed.

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The simplest Roman crane, the trispastos, consisted of a single-beam jib, a winch, a rope,
and a block containing three pulleys. Having thus a mechanical advantage of 3:1, it has
been calculated that a single man working the winch could raise 150 kg (3 pulleys x 50 kg
= 150), assuming that 50 kg represent the maximum effort a man can exert over a longer
time period. Heavier crane types featured five pulleys (pentaspastos) or, in case of the
largest one, a set of three by five pulleys (Polyspastos) and came with two, three or four
masts, depending on the maximum load. The polyspastos, when worked by four men at
both sides of the winch, could readily lift 3,000 kg (3 ropes x 5 pulleys x 4 men x 50 kg =
3,000 kg). If the winch was replaced by a tread wheel, the maximum load could be
doubled to 6,000 kg at only half the crew, since the tread wheel possesses a much bigger
mechanical advantage due to its larger diameter. This meant that, in comparison to the
construction of the Egyptian Pyramids, where about 50 men were needed to move a 2.5
ton stone block up the ramp (50 kg per person), the lifting capability of the
Roman polyspastos proved to be 60 times higher (3,000 kg per person).
However, numerous extant Roman buildings which feature much heavier stone blocks
than those handled by the polyspastos indicate that the overall lifting capability of the
Romans went far beyond that of any single crane. At the temple of Jupiter at Baalbek, for
instance, the architrave blocks weigh up to 60 tons each, and one corner cornice block
even over 100 tons, all of them raised to a height of about 19 m. In Rome, the capital
block of Trajan's Column weighs 53.3 tons, which had to be lifted to a height of about 34
m (see construction of Trajan's Column).
It is assumed that Roman engineers lifted these extraordinary weights by two measures
(see picture below for comparable Renaissance technique): First, as suggested by Heron,
a lifting tower was set up, whose four masts were arranged in the shape of a quadrangle
with parallel sides, not unlike a siege tower, but with the column in the middle of the
structure (Mechanica 3.5). Second, a multitude of capstans were placed on the ground
around the tower, for, although having a lower leverage ratio than tread wheels, capstans
could be set up in higher numbers and run by more men (and, moreover, by draught
animals). This use of multiple capstans is also described by Ammianus

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Marcellinus (17.4.15) in connection with the lifting of the Lateranense obelisk in the Circus
Maximus (ca. 357 AD). The maximum lifting capability of a single capstan can be
established by the number of lewis iron holes bored into the monolith. In case of the
Baalbek architrave blocks, which weigh between 55 and 60 tons, eight extant holes
suggest an allowance of 7.5 ton per lewis iron that is per capstan. Lifting such heavy
weights in a concerted action required a great amount of coordination between the work
groups applying the force to the capstans.
Middle Ages
Medieval port crane for mounting masts and lifting heavy
cargo in the former Hansetown of Gdańsk.
During the High Middle Ages, the tread wheel crane was
reintroduced on a large scale after the technology had
fallen into disuse in Western Europe with the demise of
the Western Roman Empire. The earliest reference to a
tread wheel (magna rota) reappears in archival literature in France about 1225, followed
by an illuminated depiction in a manuscript of probably also French origin dating to
1240. In navigation, the earliest uses of harbor cranes are documented for Utrecht in
1244, Antwerp in 1263, Brugge in 1288 and Hamburg in 1291, while in England the tread
wheel is not recorded before 1331.
Double tread wheel crane in Pieter Bruegel's The Tower
of Babel
Generally, vertical transport could be done more safely
and inexpensively by cranes than by customary
methods. Typical areas of application were harbors,
mines, and, in particular, building sites where the tread
wheel crane played a pivotal role in the construction of
the lofty Gothic cathedrals. Nevertheless, both archival
and pictorial sources of the time suggest that newly
introduced machines like tread wheels or

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wheelbarrows did not completely replace more labor-intensive methods
like ladders, hods and handbarrows. Rather, old and new machinery continued to coexist
on medieval construction sites and harbors.
Apart from tread wheels, medieval depictions also show cranes to be powered manually
by windlasses with radiating spokes, cranks and by the 15th century also by windlasses
shaped like a ship's wheel. To smooth out irregularities of impulse and get over 'dead-
spots' in the lifting process flywheels are known to be in use as early as 1123.
The exact process by which the tread wheel crane was reintroduced is not
recorded, although its return to construction sites has undoubtedly to be viewed in close
connection with the simultaneous rise of Gothic architecture. The reappearance of the
tread wheel crane may have resulted from a technological development of
the windlass from which the tread wheel structurally and mechanically evolved.
Alternatively, the medieval tread wheel may represent a deliberate reinvention of its
Roman counterpart drawn from Vitruvius' De architectura which was available in many
monastic libraries. Its reintroduction may have been inspired, as well, by the observation
of the labor-saving qualities of the waterwheel with which early tread wheels shared many
structural similarities.
Structure and placement
The medieval tread wheel was a large wooden wheel turning around a central shaft with
a tread way wide enough for two workers walking side by side. While the earlier 'compass-
arm' wheel had spokes directly driven into the central shaft, the more advanced 'clasp-
arm' type featured arms arranged as chords to the wheel rim, giving the possibility of
using a thinner shaft and providing thus a greater mechanical advantage.
Contrary to a popularly held belief, cranes on medieval building sites were neither placed
on the extremely lightweight scaffolding used at the time nor on the thin walls of the Gothic
churches which were incapable of supporting the weight of both hoisting machine and
load. Rather, cranes were placed in the initial stages of construction on the ground, often
within the building. When a new floor was completed, and massive tie beams of the roof

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connected the walls, the crane was dismantled and reassembled on the roof beams from
where it was moved from bay to bay during construction of the vaults. Thus, the crane
'grew' and 'wandered' with the building with the result that today all extant construction
cranes in England are found in church towers above the vaulting and below the roof,
where they remained after building construction for bringing material for repairs aloft.[20]
Less frequently, medieval illuminations also show cranes mounted on the outside of walls
with the stand of the machine secured to putlogs.
Mechanics and Operation
Tower crane at the inland harbour of Trier from 1413.
In contrast to modern cranes, medieval cranes and
hoists – much like their counterparts in Greece and
Rome – were primarily capable of a vertical lift, and not
used to move loads for a considerable distance
horizontally as well. Accordingly, lifting work was
organized at the workplace in a different way than today. In building construction, for
example, it is assumed that the crane lifted the stone blocks either from the bottom directly
into place, or from a place opposite the centre of the wall from where it could deliver the
blocks for two teams working at each end of the wall. Additionally, the crane master who
usually gave orders at the tread wheel workers from outside the crane was able to
manipulate the movement laterally by a small rope attached to the load. Slewing cranes
which allowed a rotation of the load and were thus particularly suited for dockside work
appeared as early as 1340. While ashlar blocks were directly lifted by sling, lewis or devil's
clamp (German Teufelskralle), other objects were placed before in containers
like pallets, baskets, wooden boxes or barrels.
It is noteworthy that medieval cranes rarely featured ratchets or brakes to forestall the
load from running backward. This curious absence is explained by the high friction
force exercised by medieval tread wheels which normally prevented the wheel from
accelerating beyond control.

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Harbour Usage
Beyond the modern warship stands a crane constructed
in 1742, used for mounting masts to large sailing
vessels. Copenhagen, Denmark.
According to the "present state of knowledge" unknown
in antiquity, stationary harbor cranes are considered a
new development of the Middle Ages. The typical harbor
crane was a pivoting structure equipped with double tread wheels. These cranes were
placed docksides for the loading and unloading of cargo where they replaced or
complemented older lifting methods like see-saws, winches and yards.
Two different types of harbor cranes can be identified with a varying geographical
distribution: While gantry cranes which pivoted on a central vertical axle were commonly
found at the Flemish and Dutch coast side, German sea and inland harbors typically
featured tower cranes where the windlass and tread wheels were situated in a solid tower
with only jib arm and roof rotating. Interestingly, dockside cranes were not adopted in the
Mediterranean region and the highly developed Italian ports where authorities continued
to rely on the more labor-intensive method of unloading goods by ramps beyond the
Middle Ages.
Unlike construction cranes where the work speed was determined by the relatively slow
progress of the masons, harbor cranes usually featured double tread wheels to speed up
loading. The two tread wheels whose diameter is estimated to be 4 m or larger were
attached to each side of the axle and rotated together. Their capacity was 2–3 tons which
apparently corresponded to the customary size of marine cargo. Today, according to one
survey, fifteen tread wheel harbor cranes from pre-industrial times are still extant
throughout Europe. Some harbour cranes were specialised at mounting masts to newly
built sailing ships, such as in Gdańsk, Cologne and Bremen. Beside these stationary
cranes, floating cranes which could be flexibly deployed in the whole port basin came into
use by the 14th century.

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Early Modern Age
Erection of the Vatican obelisk in 1586 by means of a
lifting tower.
A lifting tower similar to that of the ancient Romans was
used to great effect by the Renaissance
architect Domenico Fontana in 1586 to relocate the 361 t
heavy Vatican obelisk in Rome. From his report, it becomes obvious that the coordination
of the lift between the various pulling teams required a considerable amount of
concentration and discipline, since, if the force was not applied evenly, the excessive
stress on the ropes would make them rupture.
Cranes were also used domestically during this period. The chimney or fireplace crane
was used to swing pots and kettles over the fire and the height was adjusted by a trammel.
Industrial Revolution
Sir William Armstrong, inventor of the hydraulic crane.
With the onset of the Industrial Revolution the first modern cranes were installed at
harbours for loading cargo. In 1838, the industrialist and businessman William
Armstrong designed a hydraulic water powered crane. His design used a ram in a closed
cylinder that was forced down by a pressurized fluid entering the cylinder - a valve
regulated the amount of fluid intake relative to the load on the crane.
In 1845 a scheme was set in motion to provide piped water from distant reservoirs to the
households of Newcastle. Armstrong was involved in this scheme and he proposed to
Newcastle Corporation that the excess water pressure in the lower part of town could be
used to power one of his hydraulic cranes for the loading of coal onto barges at
the Quayside. He claimed that his invention would do the job faster and more cheaply
than conventional cranes. The Corporation agreed to his suggestion, and the experiment
proved so successful that three more hydraulic cranes were installed on the Quayside.

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The success of his hydraulic crane led Armstrong to establish the Elswick
works at Newcastle, to produce his hydraulic machinery for cranes and bridges in 1847.
His company soon received orders for hydraulic cranes from Edinburgh and Northern
Railways and from Liverpool Docks, as well as for hydraulic machinery for dock gates
in Grimsby. The company expanded from a workforce of 300 and an annual production
of 45 cranes in 1850, to almost 4,000 workers producing over 100 cranes per year by the
early 1860s.
Armstrong spent the next few decades constantly improving his crane design; - his most
significant innovation was the hydraulic accumulator. Where water pressure was not
available on site for the use of hydraulic cranes, Armstrong often built high water towers
to provide a supply of water at pressure. However, when supplying cranes for use at New
Holland on the Humber Estuary, he was unable to do this because the foundations
consisted of sand. He eventually produced the hydraulic accumulator, a cast-iron cylinder
fitted with a plunger supporting a very heavy weight. The plunger would slowly be raised,
drawing in water, until the downward force of the weight was sufficient to force the water
below it into pipes at great pressure. This invention allowed much larger quantities of
water to be forced through pipes at a constant pressure, thus increasing the crane's load
capacity considerably.
One of his cranes, commissioned by the Italian Navy in 1883 and in use until the mid-
1950s, is still standing in Venice, where it is now in a state of disrepair.
Mechanical Principles
Broken crane in Sermetal Shipyard,
former Ishikawajima do Brasil - Rio de Janeiro. The
cause of the accident was a lack of maintenance and
misuse of the equipment.
Cranes can mount many different utensils depending on
load (left). Cranes can be remote-controlled from the

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ground, allowing much more precise control, but without the view that a position atop the
crane provides (right).
The stability of a mobile construction crane can be
jeopardized when outriggers sink into soft soil,
which can result in the crane tipping over.
There are three major considerations in the
design of cranes. First, the crane must be able to
lift the weight of the load; second, the crane must
not topple; third, the crane must not rupture.
Lifting Capacity
Cranes illustrate the use of one or more simple machines to create mechanical
advantage.
 The lever. A balance crane contains a horizontal beam (the lever) pivoted about a point
called the fulcrum. The principle of the lever allows a heavy load attached to the shorter
end of the beam to be lifted by a smaller force applied in the opposite direction to the
longer end of the beam. The ratio of the load's weight to the applied force is equal to the
ratio of the lengths of the longer arm and the shorter arm, and is called the mechanical
advantage.
 The pulley. A jib crane contains a tilted strut (the jib) that supports a fixed pulley block.
Cables are wrapped multiple times round the fixed block and round another block
attached to the load. When the free end of the cable is pulled by hand or by a winding
machine, the pulley system delivers a force to the load that is equal to the applied force
multiplied by the number of lengths of cable passing between the two blocks. This number
is the mechanical advantage.
 The hydraulic cylinder. This can be used directly to lift the load or indirectly to move the
jib or beam that carries another lifting device.
Cranes, like all machines, obey the principle of conservation of energy. This means that
the energy delivered to the load cannot exceed the energy put into the machine. For
example, if a pulley system multiplies the applied force by ten, then the load moves only
one tenth as far as the applied force. Since energy is proportional to force multiplied by

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distance, the output energy is kept roughly equal to the input energy (in practice slightly
less, because some energy is lost to friction and other inefficiencies).
The same principle can operate in reverse. In case of some problem, the combination of
heavy load and great height can accelerate small objects to tremendous speed
(see trebuchet). Such projectiles can result in severe damage to nearby structures and
people. Cranes can also get in chain reactions; the rupture of one crane may in turn take
out nearby cranes. Cranes need to be watched carefully.
Stability
For stability, the sum of all moments about the base of the crane must be close to zero
so that the crane does not overturn. In practice, the magnitude of load that is permitted to
be lifted (called the "rated load" in the US) is some value less than the load that will cause
the crane to tip, thus providing a safety margin.
Under US standards for mobile cranes, the stability-limited rated load for a crawler crane
is 75% of the tipping load. The stability-limited rated load for a mobile crane supported on
outriggers is 85% of the tipping load. These requirements, along with additional safety-
related aspects of crane design, are established by the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers in the volume ASME B30.5-2010 Mobile and Locomotive Cranes.
Standards for cranes mounted on ships or offshore platforms are somewhat stricter
because of the dynamic load on the crane due to vessel motion. Additionally, the stability
of the vessel or platform must be considered.
For stationary pedestal or kingpost mounted cranes, the moment created by the boom,
jib, and load is resisted by the pedestal base or kingpost. Stress within the base must be
less than the yield stress of the material or the crane will fail.

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Types of Cranes
Overhead Crane
Overhead crane being used in typical machine shop.
The hoist is operated via a wired pushbutton station to
move system and the load in any direction.
An overhead crane, also known as a bridge crane, is a
type of crane where the hook-and-line mechanism runs
along a horizontal beam that itself runs along two widely
separated rails. Often it is in a long factory building and runs
along rails along the building's two long walls. It is similar to
a gantry crane. Overhead cranes typically consist of either
a single beam or a double beam construction. These can be built using typical steel
beams or a more complex box girder type. Pictured on the right is a single bridge box
girder crane with the hoist and system operated with a control pendant. Double girder
bridge are more typical when needing heavier capacity systems from 10 tons and above.
The advantage of the box girder type configuration results in a system that has a lower
deadweight yet a stronger overall system integrity. Also included would be a hoist to lift
the items, the bridge, which spans the area covered by the crane, and a trolley to move
along the bridge.
The most common overhead crane use is in the steel industry. At every step of the
manufacturing process, until it leaves a factory as a finished product, steel is handled by
an overhead crane. Raw materials are poured into a furnace by crane, hot steel is stored
for cooling by an overhead crane, the finished coils are lifted and loaded
onto trucks and trains by overhead crane, and the fabricator or stamper uses an overhead
crane to handle the steel in his factory. The automobile industry uses overhead cranes
for handling of raw materials. Smaller workstation cranes handle lighter loads in a work-
area, such as CNCmill or saw.
Almost all paper mills use bridge cranes for regular maintenance requiring removal of
heavy press rolls and other equipment. The bridge cranes are used in the initial

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construction of paper machines because they facilitate installation of the heavy cast iron
paper drying drums and other massive equipment, some weighing as much as 70 tons.
In many instances the cost of a bridge crane can be largely offset with savings from not
renting mobile cranes in the construction of a facility that uses a lot of heavy process
equipment.
Mobile Crane
The most basic type of mobile crane consists of a truss or telescopic boom mounted on
a mobile platform - be it on road, rail or water. Common terminology is conventional and
hydraulic cranes respectively.
Truck-mounted Crane
Developed truck-mounted crane at work
Truck-mounted crane
A crane mounted on a truck carrier provides the mobility for
this type of crane. This crane has two parts: the carrier, often
referred to as the Lower, and the lifting component which includes the boom, referred to
as the Upper. These are mated together through a turntable, allowing the upper to swing
from side to side. These modern hydraulic truck cranes are usually single-engine
machines, with the same engine powering the undercarriage and the crane. The upper is
usually powered via hydraulics run through the turntable from the pump mounted on the
lower. In older model designs of hydraulic truck cranes, there were two engines. One in
the lower pulled the crane down the road and ran a hydraulic pump for the outriggers and
jacks. The one in the upper ran the upper through a hydraulic pump of its own. Many older
operators favor the two-engine system due to leaking seals in the turntable of aging newer
design cranes.

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Generally, these cranes are able to travel on highways, eliminating the need for special
equipment to transport the crane unless weight or other size constrictions are in place
such as local laws. If this is the case, most larger cranes are equipped with either special
trailers to help spread the load over more axles or are able to disassemble to meet
requirements. An example is counterweights. Often a crane will be followed by another
truck hauling the counterweights that are removed for travel. In addition some cranes are
able to remove the entire upper. However, this is usually only an issue in a large crane
and mostly done with a conventional crane such as a Link-Belt HC-238. When working
on the job site, outriggers are extended horizontally from the chassis then vertically to
level and stabilize the crane while stationary and hoisting. Many truck cranes have slow-
travelling capability (a few miles per hour) while suspending a load. Great care must be
taken not to swing the load sideways from the direction of travel, as most anti-tipping
stability then lies in the stiffness of the chassis suspension. Most cranes of this type also
have moving counterweights for stabilization beyond that provided by the outriggers.
Loads suspended directly aft are the most stable, since most of the weight of the crane
acts as a counterweight. Factory-calculated charts (or electronic safeguards) are used by
crane operators to determine the maximum safe loads for stationary (outriggered) work
as well as (on-rubber) loads and travelling speeds.
Truck cranes range in lifting capacity from about 14.5 short tons (12.9 long tons; 13.2 t)
to about 1,300 short tons (1,161 long tons; 1,179 t). Although most only rotate about 180
degrees, the more expensive truck mounted cranes can turn a full 360 degrees.
Side-lift Crane
A sidelifter crane is a road-going truck or semi-trailer, able to hoist and transport ISO
standard containers. Container lift is done with parallel crane-like hoists, which can lift a
container from the ground or from a railway vehicle.

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Rough Terrain Crane
A crane mounted on an undercarriage with four rubber tires that is designed for pick-and-
carry operations and for off-road and "rough terrain" applications. Outriggers are used to
level and stabilize the crane for hoisting.
These telescopic cranes are
single-engine machines, with the
same engine powering the
undercarriage and the crane,
similar to a crawler crane. In a
rough terrain crane, the engine is
usually mounted in the undercarriage rather than in the upper, as with crawler crane. Most
have 4 wheel drive and 4 wheel steering which allows them to traverse tighter and slicker
terrain than a standard truck crane with less site prep. In addition, there are rough terrain
cranes with the operating cab mounted on the lower as opposed to the P&H in the above
image.
All Terrain Crane
A mobile crane with the necessary
equipment to travel at speed on public
roads, and on rough terrain at the job
site using all-wheel and crab steering.
AT‘s combine the roadability of Truck-
mounted Cranes and the
manoeuvrability of Rough Terrain
Cranes.
AT’s have 2-9 axles and are designed
for lifting loads up to 1,200 tonnes (1,323 short tons; 1,181 long tons).

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Pick and carry crane
A Pick and Carry Crane is similar to a mobile crane in that is designed to travel on public
roads, however Pick and Carry cranes have no stabiliser legs or outriggers and are
designed to lift the load and carry it to its destination, within a small radius, then be able
to drive to the next job. Pick and Carry cranes are popular in Australia where large
distances are encountered between job sites. One popular manufacturer in Australia was
Franna, who have since been bought by Terex, and now all pick and carry cranes are
commonly referred to as "Frannas" even though they may be made by other
manufacturers. Nearly every medium and large sized crane company in Australia has at
least one and many companies have fleets of these cranes. The capacity range is usually
ten to twenty tonnes maximum lift, although this is much less at the tip of the boom. Pick
and Carry cranes have displaced the work usually completed by smaller truck cranes as
the set up time is much quicker. Many steel fabrication yards also use pick and carry
cranes as they can "walk" with fabricated steel sections and place these where required
with relative ease.
Carry Deck Crane
A carry deck crane is a small 4 wheel crane with a 360 degree rotating boom placed right
in the centre and an operators cab located at one end under this boom. The rear section
houses the engine and the area above the wheels is a flat deck. Very much an American
invention the Carry deck can hoist a load in a confined space and then load it on the deck
space around the cab or engine and subsequently move to another site. The Carry Deck
principle is the American version of the pick and carry crane and both allow the load to
be moved by the crane over short distances.
Telescopic Handler Crane
Telescopic Handlers are like forklift trucks that have a telescoping extendable boom like
a crane. Early telescopic handlers only lifted in one direction and did not rotate, however,
several of the manufacturers have designed telescopic handlers that rotate 360 degrees
through a turntable and these machines look almost identical to the Rough Terrain Crane.
These new 360 degree telescopic handler/crane models have outriggers or stabiliser legs

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that must be lowered before lifting, however their design has been simplified so that they
can be more quickly deployed. These machines are often used to handle pallets of bricks
and install frame trusses on many new building sites and they have eroded much of the
work for small telescopic truck cranes. Many of the worlds Armed forces have purchased
telescopic handlers and some of these are the much more expensive fully rotating types.
Their off road capability and their onsite versatility to unload pallets using forks, or lift like
a crane makes them a valuable piece of machinery.
Crawler Crane
A crawler is a crane mounted on an
undercarriage with a set of tracks (also called
crawlers) that provide stability and mobility.
Crawler cranes range in lifting capacity from
about 40 to 3,500 short tons (35.7 to 3,125.0
long tons; 36.3 to 3,175.1 t).
Crawler cranes have both advantages and
disadvantages depending on their use. Their main advantage is that they can move
around on site and perform each lift with little set-up, since the crane is stable on its tracks
with no outriggers. In addition, a crawler crane is capable of traveling with a load. The
main disadvantage is that they are very heavy, and cannot easily be moved from one job
site to another without significant expense. Typically a large crawler must be
disassembled and moved by trucks, rail cars or ships to its next location.
Railroad Crane
A railroad crane has flanged wheels for use on railroads.
The simplest form is a crane mounted on a flatcar. More
capable devices are purpose-built. Different types of crane
are used for maintenance work, recovery operations and
freight loading in goods yards and scrap handling facilities.

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Floating Crane
Floating cranes are used mainly in bridge building
and port construction, but they are also used for
occasional loading and unloading of especially
heavy or awkward loads on and off ships. Some
floating cranes are mounted on a pontoon, others
are specialized crane barges with a lifting capacity
exceeding 10,000 short tons (8,929 long tons;
9,072 t) and have been used to transport entire bridge sections. Floating cranes have
also been used to salvage sunken ships.
Crane vessels are often used in offshore construction. The largest revolving cranes can
be found on SSCV Thialf, which has two cranes with a capacity of
7,100 tonnes (7,826 short tons; 6,988 long tons) each. For fifty years, the largest such
crane was "Herman the German" at the Long Beach Naval Shipyard, one of three
constructed by Hitler's Germany and captured in the war. The crane was sold to the
Panama Canal in 1996 where it is now known as the "Titan."
Aerial Crane
Aerial crane or 'Sky cranes' usually
are helicopters designed to lift large loads. Helicopters are
able to travel to and lift in areas that are difficult to reach by
conventional cranes. Helicopter cranes are most commonly
used to lift units/loads onto shopping centers and highrises.
They can lift anything within their lifting capacity, (cars, boats, swimming pools, etc.). They
also perform disaster relief after natural disasters for clean-up, and during wild-fires they
are able to carry huge buckets of water to extinguish fires.
Some aerial cranes, mostly concepts, have also used lighter-than air aircraft, such
as airships.

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Fixed
Exchanging mobility for the ability to carry greater loads and reach greater heights due to
increased stability, these types of cranes are characterised by the fact that their main
structure does not move during the period of use. However, many can still be assembled
and disassembled.
Tower Crane
Tower crane atop Mont Blanc
Tower cranes are a modern form of balance crane that
consist of the same basic parts. Fixed to the ground on a
concrete slab (and sometimes attached to the sides of
structures as well), tower cranes often give the best
combination of height and lifting capacity and are used in
the construction of tall buildings. The base is then attached
to the mast which gives the crane its height. Further the
mast is attached to the slewing unit (gear and motor) that
allows the crane to rotate. On top of the slewing unit there
are three main parts which are: the long horizontal jib (working arm), shorter counter-jib,
and the operator's cab.
Tower crane cabin
The long horizontal jib is the part of the crane that carries
the load. The counter-jib carries a counterweight, usually of
concrete blocks, while the jib suspends the load to and from
the center of the crane. The crane operator either sits in a
cab at the top of the tower or controls the crane by radio
remote control from the ground. In the first case the operator's cab is most usually located
at the top of the tower attached to the turntable, but can be mounted on the jib, or partway
down the tower. The lifting hook is operated by the crane operator using electric motors
to manipulate wire rope cables through a system of sheaves. The hook is located on the
long horizontal arm to lift the load which also contains its motor.

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A tower crane rotates on its axis before lowering the lifting
hook.
In order to hook and unhook the loads, the operator usually
works in conjunction with a signaller (known as a 'dogger',
'rigger' or 'swamper'). They are most often in radio contact,
and always use hand signals. The rigger or dogger directs
the schedule of lifts for the crane, and is responsible for the safety of the rigging and
loads.
COMPONENTS
Tower Cranes are used extensively in construction and other industry to hoist and move
materials. There are many types of tower cranes. Although they are different in type, the
main parts are the same, as follows:
 Mast: the main supporting tower of the crane. It is made of steel trussed sections that are
connected together during installation.
 Slewing Unit: the slewing unit sits at the top of the mast. This is the engine that enables
the crane to rotate.
 Operating Cabin: the operating cabin sits just above the slewing unit. It contains the
operating controls.
 Jib: the jib, or operating arm, extends horizontally from the crane. A "luffing" jib is able to
move up and down; a fixed jib has a rolling trolley that runs along the underside to move
goods horizontally.
 Hook: the hook (or hooks) is used to connect the material to the crane. It hangs at the
end of thick steel cables that run along the jib to the motor.
 Weights: Large concrete counterweights are mounted toward the rear of the mast, to
compensate for the weight of the goods lifted.
A tower crane is usually assembled by a telescopic jib (mobile) crane of greater reach
(also see "self-erecting crane" below) and in the case of tower cranes that have risen
while constructing very tall skyscrapers, a smaller crane (or derrick) will often be lifted to
the roof of the completed tower to dismantle the tower crane afterwards, which may be
more difficult than the installation.[42]

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Self-Erecting Crane
Four self-erecting tower cranes mounted on the roof of 1st
observatory (height 375 m) of Tokyo Skytree(Tower tip and two
craneoperator as of 497 m)
Generally a type of tower crane, these cranes, also called self-
assembling, jack-up, or "kangaroo" cranes, lift themselves from
the ground or lift an upper, telescoping section using jacks,
allowing the next section of the tower to be inserted at ground level
or lifted into place by the partially erected crane itself. They can
thus be assembled without outside help, and can grow together
with the building or structure they are erecting.
Self-Erecting Crane
(Here, the crane is used to erect a scaffold which in turn
contains a gantry to lift sections of a bridge spire.)
Telescopic Crane
A telescopic crane has
a boom that consists of
a number of tubes fitted
one inside the other.
A hydraulic or other powered mechanism extends or
retracts the tubes to increase or decrease the total
length of the boom. These types of booms are
often used for short term construction projects,
rescue jobs, lifting boats in and out of the water, etc.
The relative compactness of telescopic booms
make them adaptable for many mobile applications.
Though not all telescopic cranes are mobile cranes, many of them are truck-mounted.

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A telescopic tower crane has a telescopic mast and a superstructure (jib) on top so that
it functions as a tower crane. Some telescopic tower cranes also have a telescopic jib.
Hammerhead Crane
The "hammerhead", or giant cantilever, crane is a fixed-
jib crane consisting of a steel-braced tower on which
revolves a large, horizontal, double cantilever; the forward
part of this cantilever or jib carries the lifting trolley, the jib
is extended backwards in order to form a support for the
machinery and counterbalancing weight. In addition to the
motions of lifting and revolving, there is provided a so-called "racking" motion, by which
the lifting trolley, with the load suspended, can be moved in and out along the jib without
altering the level of the load. Such horizontal movement of the load is a marked feature
of later crane design. These cranes are generally constructed in large sizes and can
weigh up to 350 tons.
The design of hammerkran evolved first in Germany around the turn of the 19th century
and was adopted and developed for use in British shipyards to support the battleship
construction program from 1904 to 1914. The ability of the hammerhead crane to lift heavy
weights was useful for installing large pieces of battleships such as armour
plate and gun barrels. Giant cantilever cranes were also installed in naval shipyards
in Japan and in the United States. The British government also installed a giant cantilever
crane at the Singapore Naval Base (1938) and later a copy of the crane was installed
at Garden Island Naval Dockyard in Sydney (1951). These cranes provided repair support
for the battle fleet operating far from Great Britain.
In the British Empire, the engineering firm Sir William Arrol & Co Ltd was the principal
manufacturer of giant cantilever cranes; the company built a total of fourteen. Among the
sixty built in the world, few remain; seven in England and Scotland of about fifteen
worldwide.
The Titan Clydebank is one of the 4 Scottish cranes on the Clydebank and preserved as
a tourist attraction.

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Level Luffing Crane
Normally a crane with a hinged jib will tend to have its hook
also move up and down as the jib moves (or luffs). A level
luffing crane is a crane of this common design, but with an
extra mechanism to keep the hook level when luffing.
Gantry Crane
A gantry crane has a hoist in
a fixed machinery house or
on a trolley that runs
horizontally along rails, usually fitted on a single beam
(mono-girder) or two beams (twin-girder). The crane frame is supported on a gantry
system with equalized beams and wheels that run on the gantry rail, usually perpendicular
to the trolley travel direction. These cranes come in all sizes, and some can move very
heavy loads, particularly the extremely large examples used in shipyards or industrial
installations. A special version is the container crane (or "Portainer" crane, named by the
first manufacturer), designed for loading and unloading ship-borne containers at a port.
Most container cranes are of this type.
Deck Crane
Located on the ships and boats, these are used for cargo
operations or boat unloading and retrieval where no shore
unloading facilities are available. Most are diesel-hydraulic
or electric-hydraulic.

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Jib Crane
A jib crane is a type of crane where a horizontal member
(jib or boom), supporting a moveable hoist, is fixed to a wall
or to a floor-mounted pillar. Jib cranes are used in industrial
premises and on military vehicles. The jib may swing
through an arc, to give additional lateral movement, or be
fixed. Similar cranes, often known simply as hoists, were
fitted on the top floor of warehouse buildings to enable
goods to be lifted to all floors.
Bulk-Handling Crane
Bulk-handling cranes are designed from the outset to carry
a shell grab or bucket, rather than using a hook and a sling.
They are used for bulk cargoes, such as coal, minerals,
scrap metal etc.
Loader Crane
Loader crane using a fly jib extension
A loader crane (also called a knuckle-boom
crane or articulating crane) is a hydraulically powered
articulated arm fitted to a truck or trailer, and is used for
loading/unloading the vehicle. The numerous jointed
sections can be folded into a small space when the crane
is not in use. One or more of the sections may be telescopic. Often the crane will have a
degree of automation and be able to unload or stow itself without an operator's instruction.
Unlike most cranes, the operator must move around the vehicle to be able to view his
load; hence modern cranes may be fitted with a portable cabled or radio-linked control
system to supplement the crane-mounted hydraulic control levers.

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In the UK and Canada, this type of crane is often known colloquially as a "Hiab", partly
because this manufacturer invented the loader crane and was first into the UK market,
and partly because the distinctive name was displayed prominently on the boom arm.
A rolloader crane is a loader crane mounted on a chassis with wheels. This chassis can
ride on the trailer. Because the crane can move on the trailer, it can be a light crane, so
the trailer is allowed to transport more goods.
Stacker Crane
A crane with a forklift type mechanism used in automated (computer
controlled) warehouses (known as an automated storage and retrieval system (AS/RS)).
The crane moves on a track in an aisle of the warehouse. The fork can be raised or
lowered to any of the levels of a storage rack and can be extended into the rack to store
and retrieve product. The product can in some cases be as large as an automobile.
Stacker cranes are often used in the large freezer warehouses of frozen food
manufacturers. This automation avoids requiring forklift drivers to work in below freezing
temperatures every day.
Similar Machines
Shooting a film from crane
The generally accepted definition of a crane is a machine for lifting
and moving heavy objects by means of ropes or cables suspended
from a movable arm. As such, a lifting machine that does not use
cables, or else provides only vertical and not horizontal movement,
cannot strictly be called a 'crane'.
Types of crane-like lifting machine include:
 Block and tackle
 Capstan (nautical)
 Hoist (device)
 Winch
 Windlass

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 Cherry Picker
More technically advanced types of such lifting machines are often known as 'cranes',
regardless of the official definition of the term.
TYPES OF MODERN CRANES
Mounted Crane
A crane mounted on a truck carrier provides the
mobility for this type of crane. Generally, these cranes
are able to travel on highways, eliminating the need for
special equipment to transport the crane. When
working on the jobsite, outriggers are extended
horizontally from the chassis then vertically to level
and stabilize the crane while stationary and hoisting. Many truck cranes have slow-
travelling capability (a few miles per hour) while suspending a load. Great care must be
taken not to swing the load sideways from the direction of travel, as most anti-tipping
stability then lies in the stiffness of the chassis suspension. Most cranes of this type also
have moving counterweights for stabilization beyond that provided by the outriggers.
Loads suspended directly aft are the most stable, since most of the weight of the crane
acts as a counterweight. Factory-calculated charts (or electronic safeguards) are used by
crane operators to determine the maximum safe loads for stationary (outriggered) work
as well as (on-rubber) loads and travelling speeds.
Truck cranes range in lifting capacity from about 14.5 US tons to about 1300 US tons.
Rough Terrain Crane
A crane mounted on an undercarriage with four rubber
tires that is designed for pick-and-carry operations and
for off-road and “rough terrain” applications.
Outriggers are used to level and stabilize the crane for
hoisting.
These telescopic cranes are single-engine machines, with the same engine powering the
undercarriage and the crane, similar to a crawler crane. In a rough terrain crane, the

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engine is usually mounted in the undercarriage rather than in the upper, as with crawler
crane.
Side-lift Crane
A side lifter crane is a road-going truck or semi-trailer,
able to hoist and transport ISO standard containers.
Container lift is done with parallel crane-like hoists,
which can lift a container from the ground or from a
railway vehicle.
All Terrain Crane
A mobile crane with the necessary equipment to travel
at speed on public roads, and on rough terrain at the
job site using all-wheel and crab steering. AT‘s
combine the road ability of Truck-mounted Cranes
and the maneuverability of Rough Terrain Cranes.
AT’s have 2-9 axles and are designed for lifting loads
up to 1200 metric tons.
Crawler Crane
Crawler is a crane mounted on an undercarriage with
a set of tracks (also called crawlers) that provide stability and mobility. Crawler cranes
range in lifting capacity from about 40 US tons to 3500 US tons.
Crawler cranes have both advantages and disadvantages depending on their use. Their
main advantage is that they can move around on site and perform each lift with little setup,
since the crane is stable on its tracks with no outriggers. In addition, a crawler crane is
capable of traveling with a load. The main disadvantage is that they are very heavy, and
cannot easily be moved from one job site to another without significant expense. Typically
a large crawler must be disassembled and moved by trucks, rail cars or ships to its next
location.

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Floating Crane
Floating cranes are used mainly in bridge building and
port construction, but they are also used for
occasional loading and unloading of especially heavy
or awkward loads on and off ships. Some floating
cranes are mounted on a pontoon, others are
specialized crane barges with a lifting capacity exceeding 10,000 tons and have been
used to transport entire bridge sections. Floating cranes have also been used to salvage
sunken ships.
Crane vessels are often used in offshore construction. The largest revolving cranes can
be found on SSCV Thialf, which has two cranes with
a capacity of 7,100 metric tons each.
Railroad Crane
A railroad crane has flanged wheels for use on
railroads. The simplest form is a crane mounted on a
railroad car. More capable devices are purpose-built.
Different types of crane are used for maintenance
work, recovery operations and freight loading in goods
yards.
Tower Crane
The tower crane is a modern form of balance crane.
Fixed to the ground (and sometimes attached to the
sides of structures as well), tower cranes often give the best combination of height and
lifting capacity and are used in the construction of tall buildings.
The jib (colloquially, the ‘boom’) and counter-jib are mounted to the turntable, where the
slewing bearing and slewing machinery are located. The counter-jib carries a
counterweight, usually of concrete blocks, while the jib suspends the load from the trolley.
The Hoist motor and transmissions are located on the mechanical deck on the counter-
jib, while the trolley motor is located on the jib. The crane operator either sits in a cabin

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at the top of the tower or controls the crane by radio remote control from the ground. In
the first case the operator’s cabin is most usually located at the top of the tower attached
to the turntable, but can be mounted on the jib, or partway down the tower. The lifting
hook is operated by using electric motors to manipulate wire rope cables through a system
of sheaves.
In order to hook and unhook the loads, the operator usually works in conjunction with a
signaller (known as a ‘rigger’ or ‘swamper’). They are most often in radio contact, and
always use hand signals. The rigger directs the schedule of lifts for the crane, and is
responsible for the safety of the rigging and loads.
A tower crane is usually assembled by a telescopic jib (mobile) crane of greater reach
(also see “self-erecting crane” below) and in the case of tower cranes that have risen
while constructing very tall skyscrapers, a smaller crane (or derrick) will often be lifted to
the roof of the completed tower to dismantle the tower crane afterwards.
It is often claimed that a large fraction of the tower cranes in the world are in use in Dubai.
The exact percentage remains an open question.
Aerial Crane
Aerial crane or ‘Sky cranes’ usually are helicopters
designed to lift large loads. Helicopters are able to
travel to and lift in areas that are difficult to reach by
conventional cranes. Helicopter cranes are most
commonly used to lift units/loads onto shopping
centers and high-rises. They can lift anything within their lifting capacity, (cars, boats,
swimming pools, etc.). They also perform disaster relief after natural disasters for clean-
up, and during wild-fires they are able to carry huge buckets of water to extinguish fires.
Some aerial cranes, mostly concepts, have also used lighter-than air aircraft, such as
airships.

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Self-erecting Crane
Generally a type of tower crane, these cranes, also
called self-assembling or “Kangaroo” cranes, lift
themselves off the ground using jacks, allowing the
next section of the tower to be inserted at ground level
or lifted into place by the partially erected crane itself.
They can thus be assembled without outside help, or
can grow together with the building or structure they
are erecting.
Telescopic Crane
A telescopic crane has a boom that consists of a
number of tubes fitted one inside the other. A hydraulic
or other powered mechanism extends or retracts the
tubes to increase or decrease the total length of the
boom. These types of booms are often used for short term construction projects, rescue
jobs, lifting boats in and out of the water, etc. The relative compactness of telescopic
booms make them adaptable for many mobile applications.
Note that while telescopic cranes are not automatically mobile cranes, many of them are.
These are often truck-mounted.
Level Luffing Crane
Normally a crane with a hinged jib will tend to have its hook also move up and down as
the jib moves (or luffs). A level luffing crane is a crane of this common design, but with an
extra mechanism to keep the hook level when luffing.
Types of Cranes

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Hammerhead Crane
The “hammerhead”, or giant cantilever, crane is a
fixed-jib crane consisting of a steel-braced tower on
which revolves a large, horizontal, double cantilever;
the forward part of this cantilever or jib carries the
lifting trolley, the jib is extended backwards in order to
form a support for the machinery and counterbalancing weight. In addition to the motions
of lifting and revolving, there is provided a so-called “racking” motion, by which the lifting
trolley, with the load suspended, can be moved in and out along the jib without altering
the level of the load. Such horizontal movement of the load is a marked feature of later
crane design. These cranes are generally constructed in large sizes, up to 350 tons.
The design of hammerkran evolved first in Germany around the turn of the 19th century
and was adopted and developed for use in British shipyards to support the battleship
construction program from 1904-1914. The ability of the hammerhead crane to lift heavy
weights was useful for installing large pieces of battleships such as armour plate and gun
barrels. Giant cantilever cranes were also installed in naval shipyards in Japan and in the
USA. The British Government also installed a giant cantilever crane at the Singapore
Naval Base (1938) and later a copy of the crane was installed at Garden Island Naval
Dockyard in Sydney (1951). These cranes provided repair support for the battle fleet
operating far from Great Britain.
Gantry Crane
A gantry crane has a hoist in a fixed machinery house or on a trolley that runs horizontally
along rails, usually fitted on a single beam (mono-girder) or two beams (twin-girder). The
crane frame is supported on a gantry system with equalized beams and wheels that run
on the gantry rail, usually perpendicular to the trolley travel direction. These cranes come
in all sizes, and some can move very heavy loads, particularly the extremely large
examples used in shipyards or industrial installations. A special version is the container
crane (or “Portainer” crane, named by the first manufacturer), designed for loading and
unloading ship-borne containers at a port.

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Overhead Crane
Also known as a ‘suspended crane’, this type of crane
work very similar to a gantry crane but instead of the
whole crane moving, only the hoist / trolley assembly
moves in one direction along one or two fixed beams,
often mounted along the side walls or on elevated
columns in the assembly area of factory. Some of
these cranes can lift very heavy loads.
Deck Crane
Located on the ships and boats, these are used for
cargo operations or boat unloading and retrieval
where no shore unloading facilities are available. Most
are diesel-hydraulic or electric-hydraulic.
Loader Crane
A loader crane (also called a knuckle-boom crane or
articulating crane) is a hydraulically-powered
articulated arm fitted to a truck or trailer, and is used
for loading/unloading the vehicle. The numerous jointed sections can be folded into a
small space when the crane is not in use. One or more of the sections may be telescopic.
Often the crane will have a degree of automation and be able to unload or stow itself
without an operator’s instruction.
Unlike most cranes, the operator must move around the vehicle to be able to view his
load; hence modern cranes may be fitted with a portable cabled or radio-linked control
system to supplement the crane-mounted hydraulic control levers. In the UK and Canada,
this type of crane is almost invariably known colloquially as a “Hiab”, partly because this
manufacturer invented the loader crane and was first into the UK market, and partly
because the distinctive name was displayed prominently on the boom arm.

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A rolloader crane is a loader crane mounted on a chassis with wheels. This chassis can
ride on the trailer. Because the crane can move on the trailer, it can be a light crane, so
the trailer is allowed to transport more goods.
Bulk-Handling Crane
Bulk-handling cranes are designed from the outset to
carry a shell grab or bucket, rather than using a hook
and a sling. They are used for bulk cargoes, such as
coal, minerals, scrap metal etc.
Jib Crane
A jib crane is a type of crane where a horizontal member (jib or boom), supporting a
moveable hoist, is fixed to a wall or to a floor-mounted pillar. Jib cranes are used in
industrial premises and on military vehicles. The jib may swing through an arc, to give
additional lateral movement, or be fixed. Similar cranes, often known simply as hoists,
were fitted on the top floor of warehouse buildings to enable goods to be lifted to all floors.
Stacker Crane
A crane with a forklift type mechanism used in
automated computer controlled) warehouses (known
as an) automated storage and retrieval system
(AS/RS)). The crane moves on a track in an aisle of
the warehouse. The fork can be raised or lowered to
any of the levels of a storage rack and can be
extended into the rack to store and retrieve product.
The product can in some cases be as large as an
automobile. Stacker cranes are often used in the large freezer warehouses of frozen food
manufacturers. This automation avoids requiring forklift drivers to work in below freezing
temperatures every day.

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CRANE MACHINE SLEWING PLATFORM

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ROPE
A rope is a linear collection of natural or artificial plies, yarns or strands which are twisted
or braided together in order to combine them into a larger and stronger form, but is not
a cable or wire. Ropes have tensile strength and so
can be used for dragging and lifting, but are far too
flexible to provide compressive strength. As a result,
they cannot be used for pushing or similar
compressive applications. Rope is thicker and
stronger than similarly constructed cord, line, string,
and twine.
Construction
Rope may be constructed of any long, stringy, fibrous material, but generally is
constructed of certain natural or synthetic fibres. Synthetic fibre ropes are significantly
stronger than their natural fibre counterparts, but also possess certain disadvantages,
including slipperiness.
Common natural fibres for rope are manila hemp, hemp, linen, cotton, coir, jute, straw,
and sisal. Synthetic fibres in use for rope-making
includepolypropylene, nylon, polyesters (e.g. PET, LCP, HDPE, Vectran), polyethylene (
e.g. Dyneema and Spectra), Aramids (e.g. Twaron, Technoraand Kevlar)
and acrylics (e.g. Dralon). Some ropes are constructed of mixtures of several fibres or
use co-polymer fibres. Rope can also be made out of metal. Ropes have been
constructed of other fibrous materials such as silk, wool, and hair, but such ropes are not
generally available.Rayon is a regenerated fibre used to make decorative rope.
The twist of the strands in a twisted or braided rope serves not only to keep a rope
together, but enables the rope to more evenly distribute tension among the individual
strands. Without any twist in the rope, the shortest strand(s) would always be supporting
a much higher proportion of the total load.

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Usage
Rope is of paramount importance in fields as diverse as construction, seafaring,
exploration, sports, hangings, theatre, and communications; and has been used
since prehistoric times. In order to fasten rope, a large number of knots have been
invented for countless uses. Pulleys are used to redirect the pulling force to another
direction, and may be used to create mechanical advantage, allowing multiple strands of
rope to share a load and multiply the force applied to the end. Winches and capstans are
machines designed to pull ropes.
Wire rope
Wire rope, or cable, is a type of rope which consists of several strands of metal wire laid
(or 'twisted') into a helix. Initially wrought iron wires were used, but today steel is the main
material used for wire ropes.
Historically wire rope evolved from steel chains which had a record of mechanical failure.
While flaws in chain links or solid steel bars can lead to catastrophic failure, flaws in the
wires making up a steel cable are less critical as the other wires easily take up the load.
Friction between the individual wires and strands, as a consequence of their twist, further
compensates for any flaws.
History
odern wire rope was invented by the
German mining engineer Wilhelm Albert in the years
between 1831 and 1834 for use in mining in
the Harz Mountains in Clausthal, Lower
Saxony, Germany. It was quickly accepted because it
proved superior to ropes made of hemp or to
metal chains, such as had been used before.
Wilhelm Albert's first ropes consisted of three strands
consisting of four wires each.

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In 1840, Scotsman Robert Stirling Newall improved the process further.
In the last half of the 19th century, wire rope systems were used as a means of
transmitting mechanical power including for the new cable cars. Wire rope systems cost
one-tenth as much and had lower friction losses than line shafts. Because of these
advantages, wire rope systems were used to transmit power for a distance of a few miles
or kilometers.
In America wire rope was later manufactured by John A. Roebling, forming the basis for
his success in suspension bridge building. Roebling introduced a number of innovations
in the design, materials and manufacture of wire rope.
Wire Rope Construction
Wires
Steel wires for wire ropes are normally made of non-alloy carbon steel with a carbon
content of 0.4 to 0.95%. The tensile forces and to run over sheaves with relatively small
diameters.
Strands
In the so-called cross lay strands, the wires of the different layers cross each other. In the
mostly used parallel lay strands, the lay length of all the wire layers is equal and the wires
of any two superimposed layers are parallel, resulting in linear contact. The wire of the
outer layer is supported by two wires of the inner layer. These wires are neighbours along
the whole length of the strand. Parallel lay strands are made in one operation. The
endurance of wire ropes with this kind of strand is always much greater than of those
(seldom used) with cross lay strands. Parallel lay strands with two wire layers have the
construction Filler, Seale or Warrington.
Spiral Ropes

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In principle, spiral ropes are round strands as they have an assembly of layers of wires
laid helically over a centre with at least one layer of wires being laid in the opposite
direction to that of the outer layer. Spiral ropes can be dimensioned in such a way that
they are non-rotating which means that under tension the rope torque is nearly zero. The
open spiral rope consists only of round wires. The half-locked coil rope and the full-locked
coil rope always have a centre made of round wires. The locked coil ropes have one or
more outer layers of profile wires. They have the advantage that their construction
prevents the penetration of dirt and water to a greater extent and it also protects them
from loss of lubricant. In addition, they have one further very important advantage as the
ends of a broken outer wire cannot leave the rope if it has the proper dimensions.
Stranded Ropes
Left-hand ordinary lay (LHOL) wire rope
(close-up). Right-hand lay strands are laid
into a left-hand lay rope.
Right-hand Lang's lay (RHLL) wire rope
(close-up). Right-hand lay strands are laid
into a right-hand lay rope.
Stranded ropes are an assembly of several
strands laid helically in one or more layers
around a core. This core can be one of three
types. The first is a fiber core, made up of synthetic material. Fiber cores are the most
flexible and elastic, but have the downside of getting crushed easily. The second type,
wire strand core, is made up of one additional strand of wire, and is typically used for
suspension. The third type is independent wire rope core, which is the most durable in all
types of environments.[5] Most types of stranded ropes only have one strand layer over

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the core (fibre core or steel core). The lay direction of the strands in the rope can be right
(symbol Z) or left (symbol S) and the lay direction of the wires can be right (symbol z) or
left (symbol s). This kind of rope is called ordinary lay rope if the lay direction of the wires
in the outer strands is in the opposite direction to the lay of the outer strands themselves.
If both the wires in the outer strands and the outer strands themselves have the same lay
direction, the rope is called a lang lay rope (formerly Albert’s lay or Lang’s lay). Multi-
strand ropes are all more or less resistant to rotation and have at least two layers of
strands laid helically around a centre. The direction of the outer strands is opposite to that
of the underlying strand layers. Ropes with three strand layers can be nearly non-rotating.
Ropes with two strand layers are mostly only low-rotating.
Classification of ropes according to usage:
Depending on where they are used, wire ropes have to fulfill different requirements. The
main uses are:
 Running ropes (stranded ropes) are bent over sheaves and drums. They are therefore
stressed mainly by bending and secondly by tension.
 Stationary ropes, stay ropes (spiral ropes, mostly full-locked) have to carry tensile
forces and are therefore mainly loaded by static and fluctuating tensile stresses.
Ropes used for suspension are often called cables.
 Track ropes (full locked ropes) have to act as rails for the rollers of cabins or other
loads in aerial ropeways and cable cranes. In contrast to running ropes, track ropes
do not take on the curvature of the rollers. Under the roller force, a so-called free
bending radius of the rope occurs. This radius increases (and the bending stresses
decrease) with the tensile force and decreases with the roller force.
 Wire rope slings (stranded ropes) are used to harness various kinds of goods. These
slings are stressed by the tensile forces but first of all by bending stresses when bent
over the more or less sharp edges of the goods.
Rope Drive
There are technical regulations for the rope drives of cranes, elevators, rope ways and
mining installations not exceeding a given tensile force and not falling short of a given

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diameter ratio D/d of sheave and rope diameters. A general dimensioning method of rope
drives (and used besides the technical regulations) calculate the five limits:
 Working cycles up to rope discarding or breakage (mean or 10% limit) - Requirement
of the user
 Don and t force (yielding tensile force for a given bending diameter ratio D/d) - strict
limit. The nominal rope tensile force S must be smaller than the Don and force SD1.
 Rope safety factor = minimum breaking force Fmin / nominal rope tensile force S.
(ability to resist extreme impact forces) - Fmin/S ≥ 2,5 for simple lifting appliance
 Discarding number of wire breaks (detection to need rope replacement) Minimum
number of wire breaks on a reference rope length of 30d should be BA30 ≥ 8 for lifting
appliance
 Optimal rope diameter with the max. rope endurance for a given sheave diameter D
and tensile rope force S - For economic reasons the rope diameter should be near to
but smaller than the optimal rope diameter d ≤ dopt.
The calculation of the rope drive limits depends on:
 Data of the used wire rope
 Rope tensile force S
 Diameter D of sheave and/or drum
 Simple bendings per working cycle w-sim
 Reverse bendings per working cycle w-rev
 Combined fluctuating tension and bending per working cycle w-com
 Relative fluctuating tensile force delta S/S
 Rope bending length l
Safety
The wire ropes are stressed by fluctuating forces, by wear, by corrosion and in seldom
cases by extreme forces. The rope life is finite and the safety is only given by inspection
for the detection of wire breaks on a reference rope length, of cross-section loss as well

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as other failures so that the wire rope can be replaced before a dangerous situation
occurs. Installations should be designed to facilitate the inspection of the wire ropes.
Lifting installations for passenger transportation require that a combination of several
methods should be used to prevent a car from plunging downwards. Elevators must have
redundant bearing ropes and a safety gear. Ropeways and mine hoistings must be
permanently supervised by a responsible manager and the rope has to be inspected by
a magnetic method capable of detecting inner wire breaks.
Terminations
Right-hand ordinary lay (RHOL) wire rope terminated in a loop with a thimble and ferrule.
The end of a wire rope tends to fray readily, and cannot be easily connected to plant and
equipment. There are different ways of securing the ends of wire ropes to prevent fraying.
The most common and useful type of end fitting for a wire rope is to turn the end back to
form a loop. The loose end is then fixed back on the wire rope. Termination efficiencies
vary from about 70% for a Flemish eye alone; to nearly 90% for a Flemish eye and splice;
to 100% for potted ends and swagings.
Thimbles
When the wire rope is terminated with a loop, there is a risk that it will bend too tightly,
especially when the loop is connected to a device that spreads the load over a relatively
small area. A thimble can be installed inside the loop to preserve the natural shape of the
loop, and protect the cable from pinching and abrading on the inside of the loop. The use

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of thimbles in loops is industry best practice. The thimble prevents the load from coming
into direct contact with the wires.
Wire rope clamps/clips
A wire rope clamp, also called a clip, is used to fix the loose end of the loop back to the
wire rope. It usually consists of a U-shaped bolt, a forged saddle and two nuts. The two
layers of wire rope are placed in the U-bolt. The saddle is then fitted over the ropes on to
the bolt (the saddle includes two holes to fit to the u-bolt). The nuts secure the
arrangement in place. Three or more clamps are usually used to terminate a wire rope.
As many as eight may be needed for a 2 in (50.8 mm) diameter rope. There is an old
adage; be sure not to "saddle a dead horse." This means that when installing clamps, the
saddle portion of the clamp assembly is placed on the load-bearing or "live" side, not on
the non-load-bearing or "dead" side of the cable. According to the US Navy Manual
S9086-UU-STM-010, Chapter 613R3, Wire and Fiber Rope and Rigging, "This is to
protect the live or stress-bearing end of the rope against crushing and abuse. The flat
bearing seat and extended prongs of the body (saddle) are designed to protect the rope
and are always placed against the live end." The US Navy and most regulatory bodies do
not recommend the use of such clips as permanent terminations.
Swaged terminations
Swaging is a method of wire rope termination that refers to the installation technique. The
purpose of swaging wire rope fittings is to connect two wire rope ends together, or to
otherwise terminate one end of wire rope to something else. A mechanical or hydraulic
swager is used to compress and deform the fitting, creating a permanent connection.
There are many types of swaged fittings. Threaded Studs, Ferrules, Sockets,
and Sleeves are a few examples. Swaging ropes with fibre cores is not recommended.
Wedge sockets
A wedge socket termination is useful when the fitting needs to be replaced frequently. For
example, if the end of a wire rope is in a high-wear region, the rope may be periodically

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trimmed, requiring the termination hardware to be removed and reapplied. An example of
this is on the ends of the drag ropes on a dragline. The end loop of the wire rope enters
a tapered opening in the socket, wrapped around a separate component called the
wedge. The arrangement is knocked in place, and load gradually eased onto the rope.
As the load increases on the wire rope, the wedge become more secure, gripping the
rope tighter.
Potted ends or poured sockets
Poured sockets are used to make a high strength, permanent termination; they are
created by inserting the wire rope into the narrow end of a conical cavity which is oriented
in-line with the intended direction of strain. The individual wires are splayed out inside the
cone, and the cone is then filled with molten zinc, or now more commonly, an epoxy resin
compound.
Eye splice or Flemish eye
The ends of individual strands of this eye splice used
aboard a cargo ship are served with natural fiber cord
after the splicing is complete. This helps protect
seaman's hands when handling.
An eye splice may be used to terminate the loose end of
a wire rope when forming a loop. The strands of the end
of a wire rope are unwound a certain distance, and
plaited back into the wire rope, forming the loop, or an
eye, called an eye splice. When this type of rope splice
is used specifically on wire rope, it is called a "Molly
Hogan", and, by some, a "Dutch" eye instead of a
"Flemish

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