Management and Leadership Chapter 2

1. COURSENOTES
COURSE TITLE: MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP IN EDUCATION
COURSE CODE: EPB2033
PREPARED BY: TENGKU NOORAINUN TENGKU SHAHDAN

2. COURSE: EPB2033: MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP IN EDUCATION
FACULTY: EDUCATION AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
TOPIC 2: Structure in Schools
(Textbook Chapter 3)
2.0 Introduction
This topic will explain structure in schools and explain five key organizational features of
Weberian Model of Bureaucracy. The topic also covers the criticism of the Weberian Model
of its dysfunctional consequences. Learners should be able to give example of: (a)
bureaucracy; (b) formal organization; (c) informal organization and at the end of this topic,
learners should be able to differentiate formal and informal organization.
2.0.1 Overview
• The structural element of the school as social system is found in its formal
organization. Max Weber (1947) state that the structure of the organization can be
defined simply as the sum total of the ways in which it divides its labor into
distinct tasks and them achieves coordination among them.
2.1 Key Contents
2.1.1 Weberian Model of Bureaucracy
• Almost all modern organizations, including schools, have the characteristics by
Weber: division of labor, impersonal orientation, hierarchy of authority, rules
and regulations and career orientation.
o Division of Labor and Specialization
Division of labor and specialization means “the regular activities required
for the purposes of the bureaucratically governed structure are distributed
in a fixed ways as official duties” (Gerth and Mills, 1946). The tasks in
most organizations are too complex to be performed by a single
individual; division of labor among positions improves efficiency. In
schools, for example, division of labor is primarily for instructional
purposes. For example teachers as subspecialties are based on level such
as primary and secondary and subject, math, science, and other
specialities. Efficiency increases because division of labor produces
specialization, which in turn leads to employees who become
knowledgeable and expert at performing their prescribed duties.
o Impersonal Orientation.
Impersonal orientation provide “the dominance of a spirit of formalistic
impersonality, without hatred or passion, and hence without affection or
enthusiasm”. The bureaucratic employee is expected to make decisions
based on facts, not feeling.
o Hierarchy of Authority
Offices are arranged vertically in bureaucracies; that is, “each lower office
is under the control and supervision of a higher one” (Weber, 1947). This
is made manifest in the organizational chart, with for example in school
Version: 01
Date: 18/03/2011
2

3. COURSE: EPB2033: MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP IN EDUCATION
FACULTY: EDUCATION AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
with the principals at the top and assistant, teachers, and students. The
hierarchy of authority attempts to guarantee that the discipline compliance
to directives form superiors that is necessary for implementing the various
tasks and functions of an organization.
o Rules and Regulations
Rules and regulations is a “consistent system of abstract rules which have
normally been intentionally established. Furthermore, administration of
law is held to consist in the application of these rules to particular cases.
Rules and regulations are to ensure uniformity and stability of employee
action.
o Career Orientation
Employment in a bureaucratic organization is based on technical
qualifications, employees thin of their work as a career. This career
maintains, “There is a system of promotion according to seniority,
achievement, or both. Promotion is depended on the judgment of
superiors.” To foster loyalty to the organization, individuals with special
skills must be protected from arbitrary dismissal or denial of promotion.
2.1.2 Criticisms of the Weberian Bureaucratic Model
• However, the Weberian model of bureaucracy has been attacked on a number of
fronts, as Figure 2.1. First, Weber is criticized for not being attentive to the
dysfunctional features of his formulation. Second, the model has been criticised
for its neglect of the informal organization. Third, Weber does not deal with the
potential internal contradictions among the elements in the model. Finally,
feminists denounce the model as gender biased.
Figure 2.1 Critique Function and Dysfunctions Weber’s Model
Version: 01
Date: 18/03/2011
3
Function
• Expertise
• Rationality
• Compliance
and
Coordination
• Continuity
and Stability
• Incentive
Characteristic
• Division of labor
• Impersonal Orientation
• Hierarchy of Authority
• Rules and Regulation
• Impersonal Orientation
Dysfunctions
• Boredom
• Lack of Moral
• Communication
Block
• Rigidity and
Goal
Displacement
• Conflict
between

4. COURSE: EPB2033: MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP IN EDUCATION
FACULTY: EDUCATION AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
Other Criticism of Bureaucracy
o Dual structure Critiques
Talcott Parsons (1947) and Gouldner (1954) question whether the guiding
principle of bureaucracy is authority based on technical competence and
knowledge or authority based on legal powers and discipline. Unless one
assumes that there will be no conflict between authority based on “technical
competence and expertise” and that based on “incumbency in a hierarchical
position”. Dual criticised and concluded that Weber failed to distinguish
bureaucratic from professional principles.
o A Feminist Critiques.
Feminist are often critical of bureaucratic organizations in fundamental ways,
the common accusation that qualified women in modern organizations do not
receive equal treatment or compensation. Women often lack equal access to
training programs. Feminist also argue that bureaucratic structures perpetuate
systems of male domination. Concentrated more or give priority to masculine
virtues and values. This is refer to male characteristics of independence,
rationality, and competitiveness are dominant instrumental features of
bureaucracy, whereas the more feminine features of dependence,
emotionality, and cooperation are subordinate properties of organizations.
2.2 Formal and Informal Organization
• Formal organization is where established to achieve certain goals. Formal organizations
as social systems must solve the basic problems of adaptation, goal achievement,
integration, and latency if they are to survive and prosper. The formal organization
selects a few general bureaucratic expectations that are reasonably consistent with the
organization’s goal. These expectations often are formalized, codified, and adopted as
official rules and regulations of the organization.
• Schools are formal organizations with many of the same characteristics as bureaucratic
organizations. “The school organization as we know it today...can accurately is described
as a highly developed bureaucracy. As such, it exhibits many of the characteristics and
employees many of the strategies of the military, industrial, and governmental agencies
with which it might be compare.”
• Informal organization is unofficial social structure that emerges within the
formal organization that has informal leaders as well as informal norms, values,
sentiments, and communication patterns. It is a system of interpersonal relations that
forms spontaneously within all formal organizations; it is a system that is not included in
the organizational. It is the natural ordering structuring that evolves from the needs of
participants as they interact in their workplace; it includes informal structure, informal
norms, and informal patterns of leadership (Scott, 1992).
Version: 01
Date: 18/03/2011
4

5. COURSE: EPB2033: MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP IN EDUCATION
FACULTY: EDUCATION AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
• As people interact in organizations, networks of informal relations emerge that
have important effects on behaviour. Official as well as unofficial roles, norms, values,
and leaders all shape individual behaviour. People talk to each other about personal and
social issues. As a consequence, some individuals are liked, others disliked, Figure 2.2.
• Informal organization also can promote cohesion. Patterns of social
relationships usually emphasize friendliness, cooperation, and preservation of the group.
Informal groups emerge spontaneously and are built on shared interests and friendships.
They arise from such simple events as common classroom areas, liking certain
colleagues, shared lunch hours, car pools, same planning periods, and other activities.
Figure 2.2 Elements of the Formal and Informal Organization
Version: 01
Date: 18/03/2011
5

6. COURSE: EPB2033: MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP IN EDUCATION
FACULTY: EDUCATION AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
2.3 Tutorial Activities
2.3.1 Activity 1
• Who are the informal leaders in your school? Why are these people leaders? How
well do they get along with the principal? Describe the grapevine in your school.
What are the significant cliques? How do the cliques get along? How would you
describe the informal organization of your school? Where do you fit into the
informal organization?
2.4 REFERENCES
Wayne K. H, & Cecil G. M. (2008). Educational Administration: Theory, Research, and
Practice. Eight Edition -International Edition. New York: McGraw – Hill Companies.
Version: 01
Date: 18/03/2011
6

7. COURSE: EPB2033: MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP IN EDUCATION
FACULTY: EDUCATION AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
2.3 Tutorial Activities
2.3.1 Activity 1
• Who are the informal leaders in your school? Why are these people leaders? How
well do they get along with the principal? Describe the grapevine in your school.
What are the significant cliques? How do the cliques get along? How would you
describe the informal organization of your school? Where do you fit into the
informal organization?
2.4 REFERENCES
Wayne K. H, & Cecil G. M. (2008). Educational Administration: Theory, Research, and
Practice. Eight Edition -International Edition. New York: McGraw – Hill Companies.
Version: 01
Date: 18/03/2011
6