1. Consult your textbook for more resources:
Reiser and Dempsey (2012)
Trends and Issues in Instructional Design and Technology
QUICK REVIEW OF
INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN MODELS

2. Behaviorist vs. Constructivist
Behaviorist-Objectivist Constructivist-Interpretivist
Approach Approach
•Sequential, linear, top-down, •Non-linear, chaotic, organic,
systematic reflective, and collaborative
•Behavioral objectives •Objectives emerge from
•Designed by professional design and development
instructional designers •Context is crucial – not
•Careful sequencing and content
teaching of subskills •Emphasis on learning and
•Pre-selected knowledge is understanding in meaningful
goal for learning contexts
•Summative evaluation for •Formative evaluation through
collecting objective data subjective data

3. B.F. Skinner
 Wrote article called: The Science of Learning
and the Art of Teaching (1954)
 Believed that increasing human learning could
increase if instructional materials were
effectively designed.
 Programmed instructional materials should:
 present instruction in small steps
 require overt responses to frequent questions
 provide immediate feedback
 allow for learner self-pacing
 Learner would receive positive reinforcement
with the feedback they received
 TIP Theories – Operant Conditioning More on Skinner

4. Programmed Instruction
 Data regarding the effectiveness of the
materials were collected
 Instructional weaknesses were
identified
 Materials were revised accordingly
 Trial and revision procedure provided
formative evaluation B.F. Skinner’s
Teaching Machine for
 Still found in current instructional Programmed
design models. Instruction
More on Programmed Instruction

5. Robert Mager
 Preparing Objectives for Programmed
Instruction (1962)
 now in its third edition
 Describes how to write objectives that include
 a description of desired learner behaviors
 the conditions under which the behaviors
are to be performed
 the standards (criteria) by which the
behaviors are to be judged
 Current instructional designers still require
these three elements in course objectives Robert Mager
 TIP Theories – Criterion Referenced
Instruction

6. Glaser’s Instructional System
1962
http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/history_isd/glaser.html

7. Dick and Carey Model - 1978
Dick and Carey Model

8. Original ADDIE Model - 1975
http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/history_isd/addie.html

9. ADDIE Model
Systematic Design
 A – identify problem, analyze setting
 D – organize management, identify
objectives
 D – specify methods, consult prototypes
 I – test prototypes, implement recycle
 E – analyze results
Resources
 Learning Theories
 Wikipedia
 e-LearningIntuology
 ISU

10. Don Clark’s ADDIE Timeline
http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/history_isd/addie.html

11. ADDIE
Core Elements/Phases of Instructional Design
Revise
Revise
Analyze
Implement Evaluate Design
Develop
Revise Revise

12. Constructivism
 “An epistemological and ontological conception
of what reality, knowledge, the mind, thought,
and meaning are” (Reiser & Dempsey).
 “Reality is constructed by individuals and social
groups based on their experiences with and
interpretations of the world” (Reiser & Dempsey).
 Constructivists contrast with Objectivists

13. J. L. Bruner – Cognitive Theory
 Child processes information and builds increasingly
complex models of the world
 Motivation based on intrinsic value, curiosity, and
cooperation/reciprocity
 The way problems are structured must address a
child’s intellectual development and maturation
 Three modes of how things are represented:
• Enactive - touch, feel, manipulate objects
• Iconic - images that stand for perceptual events
• Symbolic representation – language and ideas

14. Social Constructivist

15. Jean Piaget Cognition
 Three Types of Knowledge
• Physical, Social, Logical
 Developmental Concept Learning
• Assimilation – what makes sense in child’s
environment
• Accommodation – new in context with known
• Adaptation – adjusts to the environment and learns
the consequences of specific actions
• Organization – integrates schemata and develop more
complex logic

16. Piaget: Stages of Cognitive
Development
 Sensorimotor Stage - Birth to two
• Objects exist outside of their visual field - object
permanence
• Learn strictly through sensory experience within their
environment - KINESTHETIC
 Pre-operational Stage - Ages 2 - 7
• Period of Language Development
• Egocentrism - only see self perceptions
• Categorize by single obvious feature

17. Piaget Stage Theory
 Concrete Operational Stage
• Ages 7 - 12
• Develop ability to handle complex logic and
make comparisons
• Hypothesize and reason ONLY about things
they’ve experienced themselves
 Formal Operational Stage –
• Age 12 - Adult
• Abstract thinking ability
• Offer interpretations and draw conclusions
• Formulate hypotheses

18. Vygotsky - ZPD
 Social Cognitive Development
 Zone of Proximal Development – ZPD

19. Zone of Proximal Development
 Vygotsky
 ZPD
 The difference Student’s
between what a learner
can do without help Current
and what he or she can Achievement
do with help Capable of
 Tap into prior Learning with Instruction
knowledge
ZPD
 Aim instruction just
beyond that point
 Avoid teaching beyond
the ZPD Beyond reach

20. Benjamin Bloom
 Taxonomy of Educational
Objectives (1956)
 Various types of learning
outcomes within the
cognitive domain
 Objectives could be Evaluation
classified according to Synthesis
type of learner behavior Analysis
described Application
 A hierarchical relationship Comprehension
exists among the various
Knowledge
types of outcomes

21. Bloom’s Taxonomy
 KNOWLEDGE: define, list, name, memorize
 COMPREHENSION: identify, describe,
explain
 APPLICATION: demonstrate, use, show,
teach
 ANALYSIS: categorize, compare, calculate
 SYNTHESIS: design, create, prepare, predict
 EVALUATION: judge, assess, rate, revise

22. Bloom’s
Taxonomy
 Knowledge - recall information in original form
 Comprehension - show understanding
 Application - use learning in a new situation
 Analysis - show s/he can see relationships
 Synthesis - combine and integrate parts of prior
knowledge into a product, plan, or proposal that is
new
 Evaluation - assess and criticize on basis of
standards and criteria

23. Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy
Creating • Creating – designing, constructing, planning,
producing, inventing, devising, making
• Evaluating – checking, hypothesizing, critiquing,
Evaluating experimenting, judging, testing, detecting,
monitoring
• Analyzing – comparing, organizing,
Analyzing deconstructing, attributing, outlining, finding,
structuring, integrating
• Applying – implementing, carrying out, using,
Applying
executing
• Understanding – interpreting, summarizing,
Understanding inferring, paraphrasing, classifying, comparing,
explaining, exemplifying
• Remembering – recognizing, listing, describing,
Remembering identifying, retrieving, naming, locating, finding
http://uwf.edu/cutla/assessstudent.cfm

24. Seymour Papert
 Constructionist learning based on
constructivism
 Learning is an active process, learners are
actively constructing mental models and
theories of the world around them.
 “Constructionism holds that learning can
happen most effectively when people are
actively making things in the real world”
(Wikipedia).
 Developed logo computer programming
 Book - “Mindstorms: Children, Computers, and
Powerful Ideas” More on
 Read “Gears of my Childhood” - Papert
http://www.papert.org/articles/GearsOfMyChildhood.html Works

25. Cognitive Apprentice
 Modeling -- involves an expert's carrying out a task so that
student can observe and build a conceptual model of the
processes that are required to accomplish the task.
 Coaching - consists of observing students while they carry
out a task and offering hints, feedback, modeling,
reminders, etc.
 Articulation - includes any method of getting students to
articulate their knowledge, reasoning, or problem-solving
processes.
 Reflection - enables students to compare their own problem-
solving processes with those of an expert or another student.
 Exploration - involves pushing students into a mode of
problem solving on their own.
http://udel.edu/~jconway/EDST666.htm#cogappr

26. Cognitive Apprenticeship
 Modeling by experts - problem
solving activities
 Community of practice
 Set desired goals and create a
learning community
 Provide scaffolds that aid pupils in
applying problem-solving
strategies
 Model and coach students

27. ICON Model – Interpretation
Construction ICON Model
Observation: Students make observations of authentic artifacts anchored
in authentic situations
Interpretation Construction: Students construct interpretations of
observations and construct arguments for the validity of their
interpretations
Contextualization: Students access background and contextual
materials of various sorts to aid interpretation and argumentation
Cognitive Apprenticeship: Students serve as apprentices to teachers
to master observation, interpretation and contextualization
Collaboration: Students collaborate in observation, interpretation and
contextualization
Multiple Interpretations: Students gain cognitive flexibility by being
exposed to multiple interpretations
Multiple Manifestations: Students gain transferability by seeing
multiple manifestations of the same interpretations

28. Four Phase Cycle of David Merrill
Instruction
Learning is promoted when:
 learners observe a demonstration
 learners apply the new knowledge
 learners engage in a task-centered instructional strategy
 learners activate relevant prior knowledge or experience
 learners integrate their new knowledge into their
everyday world Reiser & Dempsey, 2006

29. Information is NOT Instruction
"If you don't provide adequate practice, if you don't have
an adequate knowledge structure, if you don't provide
adequate guidance, people don't learn"
(Merrill, 1998)
 David Merrill’s Key to Learning
 provide structured knowledge
 provide practice
 provide guidance
 Online Principles
 Acknowledge learner’s prior experience and preconceptions
 Help learners transform facts and concepts into usable knowledge.
 Help learners monitor their own learning and learn independently
 Provide learner-centered environment online
David Merrill

30. Keller's ARCS Model for
Motivation
 Attention - gaining and  Confidence
keeping the learner's attention  Need to feel confident in the
 Through the senses program’s purpose and
 Through inquiry - thought objectives
provoking questions  Need to believe they can
 Through variety - variance in succeed and that this is
exercises and use of different worthwhile for them
media  Satisfaction – What’s the
 Relevance reward?
 Training needs to relevant.  Need to feel rewarded from the
 "What's in it for me?" learning experience.
 Need entertainment or a sense
of achievement.
 Need to achieve satisfaction in
what they have learned
 Need see that their new skills
can be immediately useful and
beneficial on their job.

31. Community of Inquiry
Social Supporting Cognitive
Discourse
Presence Presence
Educational
Experience
Setting Selecting
Climate Content
Blended Learning
in Higher
Education
D. Randy Garrison Teaching
and Norman D.
Vaughan (2008)
Presence
Structure/Process
Community of Inquiry Framework

32. Communities of Practice
“Communities of practice are groups of
people who share a concern or a passion
for something they do and learn how to do
it better as they interact regularly.”
Etienne Wenger

33. Communities of Practice in
Education
 Internally: How to organize educational experiences
that ground school learning in practice through
participation in communities around subject matters?
 Externally: How to connect the experience of students
to actual practice through peripheral forms of
participation in broader communities beyond the walls of
the school?
 Over the lifetime of students: How to serve the lifelong
learning needs of students by organizing communities of
practice focused on topics of continuing interest to
students beyond the initial schooling period?
Etienne Wenger

34. Understanding by Design
 Desired Results: What will Identify
the student learn? desired
results
 Acceptable Evidence: How
will you design an
assessment that accurately Determine
determines if the student acceptable
evidence
learned what he/she was
supposed to learn?
Plan learning
 Lesson Planning: How do experiences
you design a lesson that and
results in student learning? instruction

35. Don Clark’s ADDIE Backwards Design
http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/ADDIE/ADDIE_backwards_planning_model.html

36. Multiple Intelligences
• Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence – word player
• Logical-Mathematical Intelligence -
questioner
• Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence - mover
• Visual-Spatial Intelligence - visualizer
• Musical-Rhythmic Intelligence – music
lover
• Interpersonal Intelligence - socializer
• Intrapersonal Intelligence - individualizer
• Naturalist Intelligence – nature lover
Howard Gardner

37. Developing our Intelligences
 Stage 1: Awaken - trigger the
intelligence
 Stage 2: Amplify - strengthen
by practice
 Stage 3: Teach - learn and
acquire specific knowledge
 Stage 4: Transfer the
intelligence to real life -
Knowing how to live in the real
world

38. Kirkpatrick’s Model of
Course Evaluation
 Level 1 Evaluation—Reaction
 how participants in a training program
react to it
 Level 2 Evaluation—Learning
 the amount of learning that has
occurred due to a training program
 Level 3 Evaluation—Behavior
 measures the transfer that has
occurred in learners' behavior due to
the training program
 Level 4 Evaluation—Results
 assess training in terms of results or
overall impact for education,
business, military, etc. settings

39. Resources
 Reiser and Dempsey History of Instructional Design
(Website)
 Instructional Design Central
 TIP Theories
 Wikipedia
 Instructional Design Models
 A Journey into Constructivism
 Piaget’s Constructivism and Papert’s Constructionism:
What’s the Difference?
 Edutopia – Seymour Papert and Project-based Learning
 ICON Model
 Applying Learning Theories to Online Instructional Design
 Cognitive Apprenticeships