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Chapter four
1.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Chapter 4 The Tissue Level of Organization Lecture slides prepared by Curtis DeFriez, Weber State University
2.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Tissues are a group of cells with a common embryonic origin that function together to carry out specialized activities. They include various types, ranging from hard (bone) to semisolid (fat) to liquid (blood). Tissues
3.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Histology is the study of the microscopic anatomy of cells and tissues – it is a branch of pathology. Of the 10 trillion cells in our body, no single cell type can said to be “typical”. A trained histologist can recognize over 200 distinct human cell types under the microscope and is able to distinguish a cell from pancreatic tissue as opposed to a cell from the skin. • Each cell type has features particular to its function. Tissues
4.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Tissues are formed by grouping cells together using a variety of Intercellular Junctions . Intracellular Junctions connect adjacent cells mechanically at the cell membranes or through cytoskeletal elements within and between cells. Intracellular Junctions
5.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Tight Junctions are found where a leakproof seal is needed between cells. They keep materials from leaking out of organs like the stomach and bladder. Intracellular Junctions
6.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Adherens Junctions make an adhesion belt (like the belt on your pants) that keeps tissues from separating as they stretch and contract. Cadherin is a glycoprotein that forms the belt-like “plaque”. Intracellular Junctions
7.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Desmosomes act as “spot welds”. They also use cadherin glycoprotein (plus intermediate filaments) to hook into the cytoplasm. Intracellular Junctions
8.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Hemidesmosomes are half-welds that join cells to the basement membrane. Intracellular Junctions
9.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Gap Junctions are pores (connexons) that allow small substances like ions to pass between cells. If one of the cells gets sick or dies, these seal like a hatch to prevent damage to other cells. Intracellular Junctions
10.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. • Intracellular Junctions Intracellular Junctions Interactions Animation You must be connected to the internet to run this animation
11.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Of all the cells in the body, they combine to make only 4 basic tissue types: Epithelial tissues Connective tissues Muscular tissues Nervous tissues The 4 Basic Tissues
12.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Epithelial tissues cover body surfaces and form glands and line hollow organs, body cavities, and ducts. The 4 Basic Tissues
13.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Connective tissues (C.T.) protect, support, and bind organs. Fat is a type of C.T. that stores energy. Red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets are all C.T. The 4 Basic Tissues
14.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Muscular tissues generate the physical force needed to make body structures move. They also generate heat used by the body. Nervous tissues detect changes in the body and respond by generating nerve impulses. The 4 Basic Tissues
15.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Tissues of the body develop from three primary germ layers: Endoderm, Mesoderm, and Ectoderm Epithelial tissues from all three germ layers C.T. and muscle are derived from mesoderm. Nervous tissue develops from ectoderm. The 4 Basic Tissues
16.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Epithelium Epithelium is used to line surfaces and form protective barriers. Epithelium is also good at secreting things like mucous, hormones, and other substances . All epithelia have a free apical surface and an attached basal surface.
17.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. The basal layer of the epithelium secretes a basal lamina; the underlying C.T. secretes a reticular lamina. Together the basal lamina and the reticular lamina form a non- cellular basement membrane on which the epithelium sits. Epithelium
18.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Epithelia are named according to the shape of their cells, and the thickness or arrangement of their layers (of cells). Epithelium
19.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Epithelium
20.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Naming epithelia according to shape Epithelium Flat, wide “paving stone” cells Cells as tall as they are wide Cells taller than they are wide
21.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. One layer. All cells in contact with basement membrane Appears to have layers, but in reality all cells go from the apex to the base Two or more layers. Only basal layer in contact with basement membrane Naming epithelia according to arrangement Epithelium
22.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Naming epithelia Three different cell shapes x three different cell arrangements = nine possibilities. Two of these are not used. Add transitional (cells that change shape), and we’re back up to eight possible combinations. If different shapes are present in layers of cells, the epithelium is always named by the shape of cells in the apical (outermost) layer. Epithelium
23.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. simple squamous pseudostratified squamous stratified squamous simple cuboidal pseudostratified cuboidal stratified cuboidal simple columnar pseudostratified columnar stratified columnar transitional Simple Squamous Epithelium is composed of a single layer of flat cells found: In the air sacs of lungs In the lining of blood vessels, the heart, and lymphatic vessels In all capillaries, including those of the kidney As the major part of a serous membrane Epithelium
24.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Simple Cuboidal Epithelium is composed of a single layer of cube shaped cells. It is often found lining the tubules of the kidneys and many other glands. Epithelium simple squamous pseudostratified squamous stratified squamous simple cuboidal pseudostratified cuboidal stratified cuboidal simple columnar pseudostratified columnar stratified columnar transitional
25.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Simple Columnar Epithelium forms a single layer of column-like cells, ± cilia, ± microvilli, ± mucous (goblet cells). Goblet cells are simple columnar cells that have differentiated to acquire the ability to secrete mucous. Epithelium simple squamous pseudostratified squamous stratified squamous simple cuboidal pseudostratified cuboidal stratified cuboidal simple columnar pseudostratified columnar stratified columnar transitional
26.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium appears to have layers, due to nuclei which are at various depths. In reality, all cells are attached to the basement membrane in a single layer, but some do not extend to the apical surface. Ciliated tissue has goblet cells that secrete mucous. simple squamous pseudostratified squamous stratified squamous simple cuboidal pseudostratified cuboidal stratified cuboidal simple columnar pseudostratified columnar stratified columnar transitional Epithelium
27.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Stratified Squamous Epithelium has an apical surface that is made up of squamous (flat) cells. The other layers have different shapes, but the name is based on the apical layer. The many layers are ideal for protection against strong friction forces. simple squamous pseudostratified squamous stratified squamous simple cuboidal pseudostratified cuboidal stratified cuboidal simple columnar pseudostratified columnar stratified columnar transitional Epithelium
28.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium has an apical surface made up of two or more layers of cube-shaped cells. Locations include the sweat glands and part of the ♂ urethra Stratified Columnar Epithelium is very rare, and for our purposes, hardly worth mentioning. Epithelium simple squamous pseudostratified squamous stratified squamous simple cuboidal pseudostratified cuboidal stratified cuboidal simple columnar pseudostratified columnar stratified columnar transitional
29.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. simple squamous pseudostratified squamous stratified squamous simple cuboidal pseudostratified cuboidal stratified cuboidal simple columnar pseudostratified columnar stratified columnar transitional The cells of Transitional Epithelium change shape depending on the state of stretch in the tissue. The apical “dome cells” of the top layer (seen here in relaxation) are an identifiable feature and signify an empty bladder . In a full bladder, the cells are flattened. Epithelium
30.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Although epithelia are found throughout the body, certain ones are associated with specific body locations. Stratified squamous epithelium is a prominent feature of the outer layers of the skin. Epithelium
31.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Simple squamous makes up epithelial membranes and lines the blood vessels. Columnar is common in the digestive tract. Pseudostratified ciliated columnar is characteristic of the upper respiratory tract. Transitional is found in the bladder. Cuboidal lines ducts and sweat glands. Epithelium
32.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Endothelium is a specialized simple squamous epithelium that lines the entire circulatory system from the heart to the smallest capillary – it is extremely important in reducing turbulence of flow of blood. Mesothelium is found in serous membranes such as the pericardium, pleura, and peritoneum. Unlike other epithelial tissue, both are derived from embryonic mesoderm (the middle layer of the 3 primary germ layers of the embryo). Covering and Lining Epithelium
33.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Connective Tissues are the most abundant and widely distributed tissues in the body – they are also the most heterogeneous of the tissue groups. They perform numerous functions: • Bind tissues together • Support and strengthen tissue • Protect and insulate internal organs • Compartmentalize and transport • Energy reserves and immune responses Connective Tissue
34.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Collagen is the main protein of C.T. and the most abundant protein in the body, making up about 25% of total protein content. Connective tissue is usually highly vascular and supplied with many nerves. The exception is cartilage and tendon - both have little or no blood supply and no nerves. Connective Tissues
35.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Although they are a varied group, all C.T. share a common “theme”: Sparse cells Surrounded by an extracellular matrix The extracellular matrix is a non-cellular material located between and around the cells. It consists of protein fibers and ground substance (the ground substance may be fluid, semifluid, gelatinous, or calcified.) Connective Tissues
36.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Common C.T. cells Fibroblasts are the most numerous cell of connective tissues. These cells secrete protein fibers (collagen, elastin, & reticular fibers) and a “ground substance” which varies from one C.T. to another. Cells Of Connective Tissues
37.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Of the other common C.T. cells: Chondrocytes make the various cartilaginous C.T. Adipocytes store triglycerides. Osteocytes make bone. White blood cells are part of the blood. Cells of Connective Tissues
38.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. There are 5 types of white blood cells (WBCs): Macrophages are the “big eaters” that swallow and destroy invaders or debris. They can be fixed or wandering. Neutrophils are also macrophages (“small eaters”) that are numerous in the blood. Mast cells and Eosinophils play an important role in inflammation. Lymphocytes secrete antibody proteins and attack invaders. Connective Tissues
39.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. C.T. cells secrete 3 common fibers: Collagen fibers Elastin fibers Reticular fibers Connective Tissues
40.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. This graphic represents a collage of different C.T. elements (cells and fibers) and not a specific C.T. Connective Tissues
41.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Embryonic connective tissue Mesenchyme Mucous connective tissue Mature connective tissue Loose connective tissue Dense connective tissue Cartilage Bone Liquid Connective Tissue Classification
42.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. There are 2 Embryonic Connective Tissues: Mesenchyme gives rise to all other connective tissues. Mucous C.T. (Wharton's Jelly) is a gelatinous substance within the umbilical cord and is a rich source of stem cells. Embryonic Connective Tissues
43.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Loose Connective Tissues Areolar Connective Tissue is the most widely distributed in the body. It contains several types of cells and all three fiber types. • It is used to attach skin and underlying tissues, and as a packing between glands, muscles, and nerves. Adipose Reticular Mature Connective Tissues
44.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Loose Connective Tissues Loose areolar Adipose tissue is located in the subcutaneous layer deep to the skin and around organs and joints. • It reduces heat loss and serves as padding and as an energy source. Reticular Mature Connective Tissues
45.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Loose Connective Tissues Loose areolar Adipose Reticular connective tissue is a network of interlacing reticular fibers and cells. • It forms a scaffolding used by cells of lymphoid tissues such as the spleen and lymph nodes. Mature Connective Tissues
46.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Dense Connective Tissues Dense Irregular Connective Tissue consists predominantly of fibroblasts and collagen fibers randomly arranged. • It provides strength when forces are pulling from many different directions. Dense regular Elastic Mature Connective Tissues
47.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Dense Connective Tissues Dense Irregular Dense regular Connective Tissue comprise tendons, ligaments, and other strong attachments where the need for strength along one axis is mandatory (a muscle pulling on a bone). Elastic Mature Connective Tissues
48.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Dense Connective Tissues Dense Irregular Dense regular Elastic Connective Tissue consists predominantly of fibroblasts and freely branching elastic fibers. • It allows stretching of certain tissues like the elastic arteries (the aorta). Mature Connective Tissues
49.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Cartilage is a tissue with poor blood supply that grows slowly. When injured or inflamed, repair is slow. Hyaline cartilage is the most abundant type of cartilage; it covers the ends of long bones and parts of the ribs, nose, trachea, bronchi, and larynx. • It provides a smooth surface for joint movement. Fibrocartilage Elastic cartilage Mature Connective Tissues
50.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Cartilage Hyaline cartilage Fibrocartilage, with its thick bundles of collagen fibers, is a very strong, tough cartilage. • Fibrocartilage discs in the intervertebral spaces and the knee joints support the huge loads up and down the long axis of the body. Elastic cartilage Mature Connective Tissues
51.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Cartilage Hyaline cartilage Fibrocartilage Elastic cartilage consists of chondrocytes located in a threadlike network of elastic fibers. • It makes up the malleable part of the external ear and the epiglottis. Mature Connective Tissues
52.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Bone is a connective tissue with a calcified intracellular matrix. In the right circumstances, the chondrocytes of cartilage are capable of turning into the osteocytes that make up bone tissue. We will study bone in detail in Chapter 6. Mature Connective Tissues
53.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Blood and lymph are atypical liquid connective tissues that we will study in Chapters 19 and 22. As we have seen, blood has many cells. It also has fibers (such as fibrin that makes blood clot). Mature Connective Tissues
54.
Summary of Mature
Connective Tissues
55.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Muscles and nerve tissues are the last of the 4 basic tissue types. Neurons and muscle fibers are considered excitable cells because they exhibit electrical excitability, the ability to respond to certain stimuli by producing electrical signals such as action potentials. Action potentials can propagate (travel) along the plasma membrane of a neuron or muscle fiber due to the presence of specific voltage-gated ion channels. Each will be studied in depth in upcoming chapters. Muscle and Nerve Tissues
56.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Muscle and Nerve Tissues
57.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Combining two tissues creates an organ. However, most of the organs and all of the organs systems studied this year contain all 4 basic types of tissues. Epithelial membranes are the simplest organs in the body, constructed of only epithelium and a little bit of connective tissue. Epithelial Membranes
58.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Epithelial membranes = epithelium + connective tissue Mucous membranes Serous membranes Cutaneous membrane = skin • Skin is not a simple organ. We will study the integument as our first organ system in the next chapter. Epithelial Membranes
59.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Mucous membranes line “interior” body surfaces open to the outside: Digestive tract Respiratory tract Reproductive tract Serous membranes line some internal surfaces: Parietal layer next to body wall Serous fluid between layers Visceral layer next to organ Epithelial Membranes
60.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Skin as a cutaneous membrane is studied in Chapter 5. Epithelial Membranes
61.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Synovial membranes enclose certain joints and are made of connective tissue only. Synovial Membranes
62.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Epithelial glands are another example of simple organs Glands that secrete their contents directly into the blood are called endocrine glands. Glands that secrete their contents into a lumen or duct are called exocrine glands. We will look at some common types of exocrine glands (endocrine glands are studied in Chapter 18.) Glands
63.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Exocrine glands secrete substances through ducts to the surface of the skin or into the lumen of a hollow organ. Secretions of the exocrine gland include mucus, sweat, oil, earwax, saliva, and digestive enzymes. Examples of exocrine glands are sudoriferous (sweat) glands. Exocrine Glands
64.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. The two criteria for categorizing multicellular glands according to structure: Whether the ducts are branched or unbranched… • In a simple gland the duct does not branch. • In a compound gland the duct branches. … and the shape of the secretory portion of the gland • Tubular glands have tubular secretory parts. • Acinar glands have rounded secretory parts. • Tubuloacinar glands have features of both. Exocrine Glands
65.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Exocrine Glands unbranched duct (simple) branched duct (compound)
66.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Exocrine Glands tubular shape in secretory portion
67.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Exocrine Glands acinar or alveolar (grape-like) shape in secretory portion
68.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. The criteria for categorizing multicellular glands according to function is based on the manner in which the gland secretes its product from inside the cell to the outside environment. Merocrine Apocrine Holocrine Exocrine Glands
69.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Merocrine secretion is the most common manner of secretion. The gland releases its product by exocytosis and no part of the gland is lost or damaged . Exocrine Glands
70.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Apocrine glands “bud” their secretions off through the plasma membrane, producing membrane-bound vesicles in the lumen of the gland. The end of the cell breaks off by “decapitation”, leaving a milky, viscous odorless fluid. This type of sweat only develops a strong odor when it comes into contact with bacteria on the skin surface. Exocrine Glands
71.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Holocrine secretions are produced by rupture of the plasma membrane, releasing the entire cellular contents into the lumen and killing the cell (cells are replaced by rapid division of stem cells.) The sebaceous gland is an example of a holocrine gland, because its secretion (sebum) is released with remnants of dead cells. Exocrine Glands
72.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. A convenient way to refer to certain cells when discussing a tissue is Parenchyma or Stroma. The parenchymal cells of an organ consist of that tissue which conducts the specific function of the organ. Cells of the stroma are everything else— connective tissue, blood vessels, nerves. For example: The parenchyma of the heart is cardiac muscle cells. The nerves, intrinsic blood vessels, and connective tissue of the heart comprise the stroma. Tissue Repair
73.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Parenchyma is interesting. Because organ-specific function usually centers on parenchymal cells (“how’s your heart working?”), histological and physiological descriptions of the tissues of an organ often emphasize parenchyma. Unfortunately, stroma is commonly ignored as just boring background tissue. No organ, however, can function without the mechanical and nutritional support provided by the stroma. Tissue Repair
74.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. When tissue damage is extensive, return to homeostasis depends on active repair of both parenchymal cells and stroma. Fibroblasts divide rapidly. New collagen fibers are manufactured. New blood capillaries supply materials for healing. All of these processes create an actively growing connective tissue called granulation tissue. Tissue Repair
75.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Tissue heals faster in young adults. Surgery of a fetus normally leaves no scars. Young tissues have a better nutritional state, blood supply, and higher metabolic rate. Extracellular components also change with age. Changes in the body’s use of glucose, collagen, and elastic fibers contribute to the aging process. Aging and Tissues
76.
Copyright © John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Copyright 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted in section 117 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without express permission of the copyright owner is unlawful. Request for further information should be addressed to the Permission Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. The purchaser may make back-up copies for his/her own use only and not for distribution or resale. The Publisher assumes no responsibility for errors, omissions, or damages caused by the use of these programs or from the use of the information herein. End of Chapter 4
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