this presentation deals with the forensic aspects of identification using various 2D & 3D techniques, including the facial approximation methods..... The efforts of Dr. R V Singh and Ms. Alka Gupta in making of this presentation is appreciated..

1. CRANIO FACIAL IDENTIFICATION
• Craniofacial: cranio- meaning head or skull + -facial referring to the
facial structures

2. Facial Muscles
• The facial muscles are subcutaneous (just under
the skin) muscles that control facial expression.
• The facial muscles are a group of striated skeletal
muscles innervated by the facial nerve (cranial
nerve VII).
• The facial muscles are innervated by facial nerve
(cranial nerve VII), with each nerve serving one
side of the face.

3. Facial Muscles
• Occipitofrontalis muscle
• Temporoparietalis muscle
• Procerus muscle
• Nasalis muscle
• Depressor septi nasi muscle
• Orbicularis oculi muscle
• Corrugator supercilii muscle
• Depressor supercilii muscle
• Auricular muscles (anterior,
superior and posterior)
• Orbicularis oris muscle
• Depressor anguli oris muscle
• Risorius
• Zygomaticus major muscle
• Zygomaticus minor muscle
• Levator labii superioris
• Levator labii superioris
alaeque nasi muscle
• Depressor labii inferioris
muscle
• Levator anguli oris
• Buccinator muscle
• Mentalis
• Platysma

6. •Frontalis allows us to raise eyebrows (in surprise) and wrinkle forehead
•Orbicularis Oculi allows us to close our eyes, squint, blink, and wink
•Orbicularis Oris "kissing" muscle
•Buccinator flattens the cheek (whistling, blowing a trumpet); also a chewing
muscle, compresses the cheek to hold food between the teeth during chewing
•Zygomaticus smile (raises the corners of the mouth)
•Masseter prime mover chewing; closes the jaw by elevating the mandible
•Temporalis acts as a synergist of the masseter in closing the jaw
•Sternocleidomastoid flex your neck; "prayer" muscles, bowing your head; if just
one contracts, the head is rotated toward the opposite side
•Platysma pulls mouth down

7. Anatomical Landmarks

10. Factors influencing the witness’ ability
to recall the face
• time lapsed between incident and the interview;
• degree of physical trauma involved (passive to violent);
• whether the person was a victim or a witness;
• day-time/night-time—lighting conditions;
• distance from offender;
• use of weapons by offender;
• use of disguises by offender;
• duration of commission of offence;
• period offender observed;
• witness observation capabilities;
• witness' ability to retain the image;
• witness' ability to recall and describe;
• the age or demeanour of the witness;
• the willingness of the witness to cooperate;
• whether the offender was seen on more than one occasion; and
• whether the offender is known (by sight) to the witness.

12. Cranio Facial Identification
• Facial identification refers to manual examination of two
face images or a live subject and a facial image to
determine whether they are same persons or not.
• Facial identification methods can generally be classified
into the following three categories:
1.Cranio facial superimposition techniques
2.Cranio facial restoration techniques
3.Cranio facial reconstruction techniques
Forensic facial reconstruction is the process of creating
the face of an individual on a skull for the purpose of
identifying an unknown person.

13. METHODS OF FACIAL IDENTIFICATION
1. Superimposition (Cranio-facial
superimposition)
1. Skull/Photo superimposing
2. Video (Skull/photo) superimposition
3. Radiographic superimposition (X-ray) or
Roentgenographic
2. Facial Restoration (Repair)
3. Facial Reconstruction (Rebuilding)
1. 2-D (Drawing and Tracing methods)
2. 3-D (Anatomical and Somatometric)
3. Computer aided 3-D

14. Procedural Considerations
Few critical variables must be considered:
– Orientation
– positioning
– size
– distortion
– features to be used for comparison
The importance of each of these issues for the results
and accuracy of superimposition studies has been
discussed since the technique was first proposed, and
continues to be debated today.

15. Methods of Superimposition
Superimposition: the method of laying
one picture or image over the top of
another is called superimposition.
The first documented use of photographic
superimposition in a medical-legal
context has been attributed to Glaister
and Brash for their 1937 analysis of
the 1935 Buck Ruxton case.
Buck Ruxton _ Murderpedia, the encycloped
Comparisons were made between
photographs of two recovered skulls
and antemortem photos of two
missing women, Buck Ruxton’s wife
Isabella, and her housemaid Mary
Rogerson.
Skull Photo superimposing

16. Frankfort stand
Camera
Placeme
nt
1 2
Skull video superimposition

17. Camera Placement
• The basic procedure for comparison requires two video cameras, one
directed at the skull and one directed at the comparison photograph.
• The first video camera points directly downward at the skull.
• A second video camera points at the antemortem photographic
image affixed to a vertical bulletin board.
• Both images are projected onto a monitor placed near the skull so that
the assistant, usually the forensic artist, can easily view the
superimposition in progress while maneuvering the skull.
• The skull is superimposed and blended with the photographic image,
both on the monitor used by the assistant and on monitors in a nearby
control room where the anthropologist views them.

18. Methods of video superimposition
are
1. Blending (Merging) or fading
2. Sweeping (Taping)
– Vertical sweeps
– Horizontal sweeps
– Diagonal sweeps
– Box sweep

19. Blending or fading
A Blending of the photo and
skull is manipulated in
the control room starting
with the photo image
only, and then slowly and
progressively increasing
the superimposed image
of the skull.
The blending progresses
until the skull dominates
the superimposition and
finally terminates with a
skull-only image.

20. Sweeping
• In sweeping procedures several types of
superimposition taping methods are used. Common
methods:
1. Horizontal
2. Diagonal
3. Box sweep
4. Vertical

21. Facial Reconstruction (Rebuilding)

22. Facial Reconstruction or Approximation
• Presently, the term “face reconstruction” is widely
replaced by more accurate term “face approximation”.
The reason is simple. The term “reconstruction” can be
understood as “restoration” but also “the exact recreation
of ante mortem look”.
• It is impossible to obtain exact appearance, because
some of the features can not be predicted only from
skull.
• In the best case, the practitioner can only approximate to
the real appearance.
• Techniques of facial approximation are used mainly in
Forensic Anthropology.

23. What is FFR
 Forensic facial reconstruction (or forensic facial
approximation) is the process of recreating the face of an
individual (whose identity is often not known) from their
skeletal remains through a blend of artistry, forensic
science, anthropology, osteology, and anatomy.
 It is easily the most subjective as well as one of the most
controversial—technique in the field of forensic
anthropology.
 Despite the controversy, facial reconstruction has proved
successful frequently enough that research and
methodological developments continue to be advanced.

24. Methods of Forensic Facial Reconstruction
(FFR)
FFR
2-Dimensional
Facial Reconstruction
3-Dimensional
Facial Reconstruction
1. Manual (Drawing/sketching)
2. Computerized
1. Tissue Depth or Morphometric Method
(AMERICAN)
2. Anatomical or Muscle to muscle or
Morphoscopic Method (RUSSIAN)
3. Combination Method or Manchester Method
(WORLDWIDE)
Computerized 3DR

26. How To Start…
1. Receiving, Protecting and storing of skull
2. Preliminary data collection (A/S/R/S)
3. Combined job (Anthropologist/Odontologist/Artist)
4. Applying Basic techniques of facial Reconstruction

27. Basics of FFR
• Osteological Examination: Size, shape and proportionate
measurements to discern age, sex, stature, race, antemortem
health, pathology, trauma and other habits etc of the person
are best used to reconstruct a face.
• Cephalometric/Radiographic analysis: Some features
which are not visible to naked eyes can be discovered with
help of radiographic techniques.
• Soft Tissue Thickness: According to Michael Anderson, the
tissue depth method uses average skin-thickness
measurements at specific points on the skull to guide the soft-
tissue reconstruction. Skin-depth measurements have been
collected on the human face at 21 points for males and
females for the three racial groups.

28. Precautions
1. It is recommended that the artist inquire about
any potential need for DNA specimens before
handling a skull without gloves.
2. Above all, the skull should always be treated
with respect. It is what remains of a living,
breathing human life and should not be an
object for jokes and pranks.

29. Handling of Skull
• The skull should always be
handled with care: Remember
that a skull entrusted to you
should never be altered or
damaged, nor should any
minute bits of possible
evidentiary information be lost.
• Never pick up a skull in the
facial area by placing your
fingers into the orbits of the
eyes or in the nasal aperture.
• Cradle the skull with both hands
or, if necessary, a good one-
handed grip can be made with
your thumb in the foramen
magnum with the palm of your
hand supporting the base of the

30. Gluing the Mandible to the Cranium
General Dental
Assessment: Once the
teeth are secured in the
skull, the artist should
carefully evaluate the
dentition for potentially
useful information before
gluing the mandible to
the cranium.
Ideally a dentist or
odontologist is consulted
to perform a dental
analysis.

31. Correct Positioning: When
gluing the mandible, the
spacing of these structures
should be simulated to
correspond with the living
condition; thus a few
millimeters should be
allowed between the condyle
and the fossa (Figure 11.8).
Spacing can be
accomplished with clay,
cotton, gauze, or other
materials.

32. 2-D Reconstructions
• Two-dimensional facial reconstructions are based on ante mortem
photographs, and the skull. Occasionally skull radiographs are used
but this is not ideal since many cranial structures are not visible or at
the correct scale.
• A commonly used method of 2D facial reconstruction was pioneered
by Karen T. Taylor of Austin, Texas during the 1980s. Taylor's
method involves adhering tissue depth markers on an unidentified
skull at various anthropological landmarks, then photographing the
skull.
• Recently developed, the F.A.C.E. (Facial Automated Composition and
Editing) and C.A.R.E.S. computer software programs quickly
produce two-dimensional facial approximations that can be edited
and manipulated with relative ease. These programs may help
speed the reconstruction process and allow subtle variations to be
applied to the drawing, though they may produce more generic
images than hand-drawn artwork.

33. Acetate Method of Tracing

34. 3-Dimensional reconstructions
• Three-dimensional facial reconstructions are the sculptures (made
from casts of cranial remains) created with modeling clay and other
materials) high-resolution, three-dimensional computer images. Like
two-dimensional reconstructions, three-dimensional reconstructions
usually require both an artist and a forensic anthropologist.

35. Methods
1. American method or Morphometric method
2. European or Russian method or Morphoscopic
Method
3. Manchester or combined method

36. The materials needed for this exercise
are:
1. A skull
2. A scalpel or knife
3. small metric ruler
4. Several boxes of eraser refills, one-fourth inch in
diameter
5. A diagram for placement of average tissue depth
markers
6. Glue (Duco™ cement or crazy glue)
7. Non-hardening clay such as Permoplast Modeling
Clay™

37. Tissue Depth Method (American)
Morphometric method
• Average tissue depth is determined for 21 precise anatomical points
(landmarks) on skull.
• Pioneer in this field was Dr. Wilton Krogman in 1940 and Betty Pat
Gatliff in 1970.

39. The Concept
• In forensic facial reconstruction, or rather, forensic reconstruction
of soft facial parts the basic premise is that in certain anatomical
points of the skull there are definable soft tissue thicknesses.
• In several studies, these were measured, and the mean thickness
for the respective point (so called landmarks) were calculated.
• The measurements used to be taken on dead bodies, with needles,
MRI, or CT.
• The imaging methods provided an opportunity to perform
measurements in living subjects, to be able to exclude postmortem
changes and artifacts.

40. Morphometric Method

42. Anatomical or Morphoscopic Method
Russian or Europen
• This is a method of rebuilding a face, muscle by muscle, generally attributed to
renowned Russian anthropologist Mikhail M. Gerasimov in 1930-1970.
• Reconstructs the face by sculpting muscles, glands and cartilage on the skull,
in effect “fleshing out” the skull. The skull gives information about the origins
and insertions of the facial muscles, or where the muscles begin and end.
These parameters, interpreted by a specialist with a thorough knowledge of
human and comparative anatomy and biomechanics, provide the information
necessary to produce a competent reconstruction from a skull.

43. Morphoscopic method

47. Manchester or Combination Method
• Regarding the choice between the anatomical method and the
tissue depth method, Michael Anderson states, “It should be noted
that these two methods are not mutually exclusive or contradictory.
Many reconstruction practitioners use a combination of both.”
• It is our belief, too, that the wise reconstruction artist takes
advantage of the best aspects of each method. Therefore, a
combination approach is likely the best approach.
• It is the stage where all the precisely calculated anatomical
modeling is covered up by a layer of clay, laid over its surface to
simulate the outer layers of subcutaneous tissues and skin. … apply
this layer as wide strips of clay, allowing them to mirror the form
underneath but always using the measurements to guide their
thickness. This ensures that the hand of the artist does not and
cannot influence the final shape of the head and face. The
measurements still rule supreme.

49. The 3-Dimensional Clay
Reconstruction
The skull was mounted onto a pole in the Frankfurt Plane using
plaster-of paris. Tissue depth data was chosen depending on
the age, sex, and ancestry. Tissue depth markers were placed at
common facial anthropological points.
1. Pegging the Skull

50. 2. The Neck
The neck was sculpted around the pole using a block of clay
that was wide enough to support the head. The
sternocleidomastoid was formed by a large sausage-shaped
piece of clay that was attached so as to appear vertical from
the side, but sloping slightly inwards when viewed from the
front.

51. 3. The Temporalis Muscle
The temporalis muscle was built up by adding clay to the side of the
skull, filling the space behind the zygomatic arch and progressively
getting thinnner towards the inferior temporal line, recreating the natural
curve of the head.

52. 4.The Positioning of the Eye Globe
The globes used to represent eyes were 25mm in diameter,
which is the standard diameter for an adult. These were
positioned in each orbit so that they were slightly closer to the top
than the bottom, and slightly closer to the lateral wall than
the medial.
The projection of the eye was determined by creating a tangent
between the middle of the upper border of the orbit and the
middle of the lower border of the orbit. The eye was then
positioned in the orbit until the flat plane of the iris protruded to
the tangent.

53. 5.The Orbicularis Oris Muscle and Buccinator Muscles
The orbicularis oris was formed by initially rolling two pieces of
clay into sausage shapes and placing them across the area where
the upper and lower teeth would have been. This muscle is
formed as a thick oval shape to represent the space between the
teeth and the muscle, and the muscle itself.

54. 6. The Orbicularis Oculi Muscle
The orbicularis oculi is a circular muscle which runs around the orbit of the
eye. This was sculpted by rolling a piece of clay into a sausage shape and
placing it around the orbit before flattening the clay so it follows the shape of
the orbit and bends in towards the eyeball. The eyelids were then formed by
creating two smaller sausage-shapes, which were positioned across the
eyeball according to the position of the malar tubercle and lacrimal crest.

55. 7. The Nose
The nose was sculpted according to the description suggested when
predicting the facial features.
Measurements were carried out using the standards set to ensure
that the nasal tip and the projection of the nose were accurate. After
the nose was sculpted, further measurements were used to ensure
that the height, length and depth of the nose were correct. The width
of the nose was determined by the maximum aperture width (MAW),
which is found to be three-fifths of the maximum nasal width.

56. 8. The Ears
The ears were modelled according to the
description predicted: large protruding ears
that are adherent (meaning they dont have
lobes). The ears were postioned according
to Gerasimov (1971), who stated that the
angle of the ear can be determined by the
angle of the jawline.The angle of the Ear

57. 9. The Parotid Gland
The parotid gland (highlighted in blue) was sculpted using
irregular lumps of clay to create a lobulated mass that
originates below the external auditory meatus and spreads
across the masseter muscle remaining just below the
zygomatic arch, and covers the area between the mandible
and the sternocleidomastoid.

58. 10. The Zygomaticus Major and Minor Muscles
The zygomaticus muscles are both sculpted using thin strips
of clay which are supported from behind by extra clay so that
they don't collapse under the weight of the skin layer. These
muscles form the profile of the cheeks.

59. 11. The Skin Layer
The final skin layer was applied according to the tissue depth
pegs. Care was taken to ensure that the strips of clay
followed the underlying muscle structure. The details of the
face such as the mouth, eyes and eyebrows were modelled
according to their predicted description. The surface of the
head and neck was smoothed and patted with a damp
sponge to achieve a matted texture similar to the texture of
skin.

60. Important Tips..
• The three most important things to know are the sex,
race, and age of the skull.
• When using a plastic lab skull, determine the most likely
sex of the person from which the plastic skull was
modeled.
• Work the clay smoothly from start to finish, following the
curve of the bone.
• Be especially careful to follow the curve of the bone
along the jaw line as this area can spread out quickly if
you are not paying attention.
• Use each other as models or use photographs when
shaping the lips, nose, eyelids, and mouth.

61. Daubert Standard
• In the U.S., the Daubert Standard is a legal precedent
set in 1993 by the Supreme Court regarding the
admissibility of expert witness testimony during legal
proceedings.
• When multiple forensic artists produce approximations
for the same set of skeletal remains, no two
reconstructions are ever the same and the data from
which approximations are created are largely
incomplete. Because of this, forensic facial
reconstruction does not uphold the Daubert Standard, is
not included as one of the legally recognized techniques
for positive identification, and is not admissible as expert
witness testimony. Currently, reconstructions are only
produced to aid the process of positive identification in
conjunction with verified methods.

62. FFR Status in India
• Facial Reconstruction is not technically implemented in India and
other developing countries due to :
1. Lack of Facial Tissue Thickness Data
2. Lack of Facial Feature Data
3. High Cost of Purchasable Solutions
4. Requires a lot of time
5. Less productive
6. Lack of Expertise