Sea power-session 10-empire

Not Guns, Germs, and Steel. Rather oceanic commerce and
the ships which have guarded it. That’s the factor to explain
the amazing rise of the English-speaking peoples. Their
naval campaigns underlie this history.
jbp

Padﬁeld, p. 214.
“The war was ended in 1763 by the Treaty of Paris. Britain’s chief negotiator, a leading
member of the peace party, acted in the spirit of the objections to Pitt’s uncompromising
policy: France’s main West Indian islands were returned to her, as well as Gorée on the
slaving coast of Africa and Belle Isle; Havana and Manila were returned to Spain.
Nevertheless, Britain retained the whole of Canada and acquired Florida from Spain. Since
France transferred Louisiana to Spain, France was now excluded from North America. Her
position in India was also so weakened as to leave the British East India Company
dominant.
“If Great Britain had given away many of the fruits of the most triumphant war she had
ever fought •—as Pitt complained—she nevertheless emerged as undisputed mistress of
North America and the widest trading empire. Moreover, the value of her exports and re-
exports had risen by over 30% during the war, to almost £15 million; her imports had risen
by 27%, to £11 million. Over 100 British slaving ships—65 from Liverpool, now
undisputed slaving capital of the country—sailed each year for Africa, carrying on average
over 20,000 Negroes to the Americas….”
11
Quiberon Bay, 1759

Ibid.
“…the Americas. The metal and textile industries, agriculture and the entire internal market
had been stimulated. Judged by these results and the temporary devastation of French trade
and industry, the war had proved a highly successful commercial aggression.
“It had also been hugely expensive. Subsidies to Frederick II and the other Continental
allies had amounted to some £10 million. Average annual expenditures had been over £18
million, against tax revenue of £8.6 million. The resulting deficits had almost doubled the
national debt, from £74 million up to £132 million, which now required over 50% of tax
revenue to service. This was the investment in the bid for North America….The
unprecedented scale of the effort was made possible only by the maturity of the fiscal and
financial system; it was this which had enabled Britain to mobilize the savings of her people
and foreigners alike—some £15 million, or 14% of the national debt was held abroad,
chiefly by the United Provinces.
“By contrast, the French financial system was once again in crisis….”
11
Quiberon Bay, 1759

Quebec, 1759
India
The West Indies
The (British) Lion’s Share

Quebec, 1759
The Death of General Wolfe
Benjamin West, 1770; in the National Gallery of Canada

Ottawa R.
St LAW
RENCE
R.
CHAMPLAIN

FT Oswego
FT W Henry
Mont Real
Quebec

The Missing
People
Indian
C
ountry

The Missing
People
Between the 80,000 French settlers of
New France and the 1,500,000 mostly
British settlers of the Thirteen
Colonies were the American Indians,
caught ‘between the blades of a
scissors,’ as one Moravian missionary
put it.
With the notable exception of the
Mohawks, the rest of the Iroquois,
nearly all of the Micmacs, and
Abenaki sided with the French.
Hence we called this conﬂict the
French and Indian War.
And it had been going on with little
remission since King William’s War.
jbp

The Ohio Country
The Upper St. Lawrence

3:

The Seven Years’ War
“In America, meanwhile, Pitt had already put his plans in motion. In 1757 an unsuccessful
expedition had been mounted from Halifax against Louisburg, the French bastion on Cape
Breton Island,• which flanked the approaches to the Gulf of St. Lawrence.…”
Sea Power, p. 55.
The British Capture Louisburg

3:

“… St. Lawrence. In 1758 a larger and better-commanded force, nominally under under the
superannuated Major General James Abercrombie, but effectively under the field command of
Lord Jeffrey Amherst,• set out to accomplish the same objective. This time Adm Boscawen
held the naval command, and the redoubtable James Wolfe was one of the brigadiers of the
assault force.…” op. cit., p. 55.

“In a well-planned amphib assault, the fleet’s boats took the troops in under fire to the rocky
open coast W of the city.…”
“… assault force.”
Ibid.
3:


“In a well-planned amphib assault, the fleet’s
boats took the troops in under fire to the rocky
open coast W of the city.• Many boats capsized
in the heavy surf….”
Ibid.
3:


in the heavy surf, but a contingent of Wolfe’s
redcoats on the left of the line made a precarious
beachhead which their commander was quick to
perceive and exploit….”
Ibid.
3:


in the heavy surf, but a contingent of Wolfe’s
redcoats on the left of the line made a precarious
beachhead which their commander was quick to
perceive and exploit. As quickly as they landed,
the superbly conditioned British troops wheeled
into a bayonet-studded line, charged and cleared
the coastal batteries. As reinforcements poured
ashore, the English infantry rapidly forced the
now-outnumbered French back into the
fortifications of the city.
Ibid.
3:

“Satisfied that superior British sea power would now cut off French reinforcements and
supplies, Amherst refused the temptation to assault and settled down to siege…”

3:

“… to siege. With Boscawen’s ships coasting back and forth hull-down on the horizon, there was
no likelihood of relief for the besieged. On short rations and without hope, the French garrison
finally surrendered in late July, after a six-weeks investment.
Ibid.

“… six-weeks investment.
Ibid.
“If Louisburg was the ‘key to the St. Lawrence,’ then
Quebec was the key to North America. Situated almost a
thousand miles within the heartland of the continent,
Quebec is located at the point where the St. Lawrence
begins to broaden into a great tidal estuary. With the
ordnance of the 18th century, the range of shore batteries
was adequate to command the river above Quebec, but not
below.• Protected by the turbulent Montmorency River to
the E,…
The Quebec Campaign

Ibid.
The Quebec Campaign
the E, and by the cliff-like shore line to the W, the rocky
bastions of the ‘Upper City’ were deemed to be virtually
impregnable to assault.• Yet to control Quebec was to
control the upper St. Lawrence, the natural water-highway
to the Great Lakes and the whole interior of the continent.•

Ibid.
The Quebec Campaign
To Pitt’s perceptive eye, here was a prize worth any cost.…”

Ibid.
The Quebec Campaign
To Pitt’s perceptive eye, here was a prize worth any cost. Thus the major British effort in 1759 was a
three-pronged campaign against Quebec.…”

“…to control…the whole interior of the continent….

Quebec
largest of the ten provinces and three
territories of Canada, the world’s
second largest country by area

Quebec City
French explorer Jacques Cartier built a fort
at the site in 1535, where he stayed for the
winter before going back to France in
spring 1536. He came back in 1541 with the
goal of building a permanent settlement.
“I shall put God’s gift to good use;” the
Don de Dieu was Champlain’s (1608) ship.

The Île d’Orléans divides Lower and Upper St. Lawrence
Lower St. Lawrence
Upper St. Lawrence

At the Beginning of the French & Indian War

1756
Montcalm captures
Fort Oswego

1757
Montcalm captures
Fort William-Henry
Pitt replaces
Newcastle

1758
Amherst takes
Louisburg
Montcalm defends
Fort Carillon against
General Abercrombie
Forbes takes
Fort Duquesne

1759
Amherst takes
Fort Crown Point
Sir Wm Johnson
takes Fort Niagara

3:

“…against Quebec.
op. cit., pp. 55-56.
“Lord Jeffrey Amherst
with 12,000 men would
strike from the S, along the
natural waterway provided
by Lake Champlain and the
Richelieu River…”
The Quebec Campaign

3:

op. cit., pp. 55-56.
The Quebec Campaign
“… Richelieu River later to figure
importantly in both the American Revolution
and the War of 1812). This would entail the
capture of French outposts at Fort
Ticonderoga • (Carillon) and Crown Point •
(St. Frédéric)….”

“…Crown Point [St. Frédéric].
op. cit., p. 56.
“A smaller British force [under Sir William Johnson and his Mohawks] would capture Fort
Niagara and converge on Quebec from the W, following the valley of the [upper] St. Lawrence.
“An amphib force would meanwhile ascend the St. Lawrence from the sea and operate against
Quebec directly, isolating it from seaborne reinforcement and supply. This was a substantial
command, consisting of 26 fighting vessels, besides auxiliaries and transports. It ferried 9,200
British regulars, at this epoch of history quite possibly the best soldiers in the world….”
The Quebec Campaign
3:


“…the superbly conditioned
British troops…quite possibly
the best soldiers in the world….”
The Louisbourg Grenadiers was a temporary unit of grenadiers formed by General James
Wolfe in 1759 to serve with British Army forces in the Quebec campaign of the Seven
Years' War.
Grenadiers from the 22nd, 40th, and 45th regiments were brought together by Wolfe at the
Fortress of Louisbourg in Nova Scotia in preparation for action along the St. Lawrence
River. The unit was involved in numerous battles during the months-long prelude to the
Battle of the Plains of Abraham, including the ill-fated Battle of Beauport on July 31, 1759.
After Quebec City's capture, the Grenadiers went on to be involved in the fall of Montreal
the next year. After the end of the Seven Years' War, the unit was disbanded and its
members returned to their original regiments.—Wikipedia
op. cit., p. 56.

“…the world. But most important, the ships were commanded by Admiral Charles Saunders, and
the troops by Major General James Wolfe. Together Wolfe and Saunders proved to be one of the
great amphibious partnerships of history.
“The campaign plan of the British was well conceived, and their forces, by the standards of
colonial war at this time, were exceedingly formidable….” Ibid.
The Quebec Campaign
3:


“…exceedingly formidable. The French position, on the contrary,was weakened by a fatal feud •
between the Marquis de Vaudreuil, the Governor of French North America, and the Marquis de
Montcalm, the military commander.
“But the French had the benefit of ‘holding the ground,’ and geographically Quebec is a very
strong position.• They had, besides, the advantage of being in the midst of a French colony, with a
friendly civilian population scattered up and down the river….”
Ibid.
The Quebec Campaign
3:


“…the river. They had a potential garrison of 14,000 men and over 300 guns for the defense of
their strong point.• Furthermore they had in Louis Joseph de Montcalm a talented and experienced
commanding officer, altogether unlikely to be fooled by any elementary subterfuge….” Ibid.
3:

The Quebec Campaign

“…the river. They had a potential garrison of 14,000 men and over 300 guns for the defense of
their strong point.• Furthermore they had in Louis Joseph de Montcalm a talented and experienced
commanding officer, altogether unlikely to be fooled by any elementary subterfuge.• The French
had also been successful in winning the allegiance of most of the Indians….” Ibid.
3:

The Quebec Campaign

“…the Indians. The natural difficulties imposed on a military advance through the trackless
wilderness • would in any event have delayed the southern and western columns invading
Canada,…” Ibid.
3:

The Quebec Campaign

“…invading Canada, but harassing guerrilla operations by small French forces powerfully
reinforced by Indian war parties • helped to guarantee that neither of these British commands
would reach its goal in time to assist Wolfe and Saunders….” Ibid.
3:

The Quebec Campaign

“…and Saunders.
“Adm Saunders meanwhile was bringing
Wolfe’s army to the threshold of Quebec City.
By dint of boat surveys made by British
squadrons earlier, and through the grudging aid
of captured French-Canadian pilots, he took his
whole armada of over a hundred sail up the
difficult channel without loss. He anchored out
of cannon shot of Quebec in the South Channel
between the Isle of Orleans and Point Lévis.….”
Ibid.
3:

The Quebec Campaign

“…Point Lévis. Disembarking the troops from
the overcrowded transports,• Wolfe first
occupied the undefended, low-lying Isle of
Orleans and encamped at the extreme western
end….” Ibid.
3:

The Quebec Campaign

“…western end. Subsequently he sent a column
of troops to seize the lightly-defended heights of
Point Lévis, • and emplaced heavy guns there to
fire into the ‘Lower City’ across the river. The
investing of Quebec had begun….”
Ibid.
3:

The Quebec Campaign

3:

“…had begun.
“On several occasions the French had
attempted to drift down fireships and fire rafts
on the ebb tide to destroy the anchored British
men-of-war,• but the ever-watchful Saunders
had ships’ boats patrolling nightly upriver, and
these had little trouble boathooking the flaming
hulks harmlessly ashore….”
The Quebec Campaign
op. cit., pp. 56-57.

3:

“…harmlessly ashore.• For the most part
Montcalm was content to hold a tactical
defensive, and depend on his entrenched troops
to hold all of the N bank of the river.•
“By raid and by personal reconnoitering,
Wolfe endeavored to find a weak spot in
Montcalm’s troop dispositions. But there
appeared to be none. Leaving the strong-walled
city lightly garrisoned, the French commander
had arrayed the bulk of his force in earthworks
along the high ground back of the beach all the
way from the St. Charles to the Montmorency
Rivers….”
The Quebec Campaign
op. cit., pp. 56-57.

3:

“…Montmorency Rivers. The lower reaches of
the St. Charles River were covered by two
armed hulks sunk athwart it.• Thus all the
beaches that looked practicable for assault were
covered. Westward of the city the river bank was
virtually cliff….”
The Quebec Campaign
op. cit., p. 57.Armed
Hulks

Illustration of the cliffs and the battlefield,
the Plains of Abraham

3:

“…Montmorency Rivers. The lower reaches of
the St. Charles River were covered by two
armed hulks sunk athwart it.• Thus all the
beaches that looked practicable for assault were
covered. Westward of the city the river bank was
virtually cliff.• At those few spots where landing
even a single boat was possible, there was an
outpost, able to give a prompt alarm. A mobile
force under Montcalm’s able lieutenant, Louis
Antoine de Bougainville,• operated upriver also,
able to reinforce any threatened picket.
“The narrow channel above Quebec made it
infeasible for Saunders to take his big ships
farther up the river, but flatboats, sloops of war,
and even frigates passed under the guns of the
city at night. From these, various probing raids
were made against positions on the N bank,
establishing beyond doubt that the French were
alert….”
The Quebec Campaign
op. cit., p. 57.

3:

“…were alert.
“After mature considerations of this choice of
difficulties, Wolfe elected to prepare his major
assault on the French left flank, where it rested on
the Montmorency River.….”
The Quebec Campaign
Ibid.

3:

“…were alert.
the Montmorency River.• Pursuant to this design, he
landed two brigades on the E bank of the
Montmorency, planning to protect their fording of
the stream by a simultaneous frontal assault from
boats….”
The Quebec Campaign
Ibid.

3:

“…were alert.
boats.• Meanwhile the admiral helped perfect the
plan. The offshore shoals and ledges would
generally prevent running frigates close enough
inshore to give effective fire support, though
possibly one well-handled vessel might work its
way up the channel carved out by the rapid currents
of the Montmorency….”
The Quebec Campaign
Ibid.

3:

“…were alert.
boats.• Meanwhile the admiral helped perfect the
plan. The offshore shoals and ledges would
generally prevent running frigates close enough
inshore to give effective fire support, though
possibly one well-handled vessel might work its
way up the channel carved out by the rapid currents
of the Montmorency.• To supply at least a minimum
of artillery for the left and center boat squadrons,
Saunders improvised gunboats (called ‘cats’) out of
shallow-draft transports, which he intended to beach
broadside as close to shore as possible….”
The Quebec Campaign
Ibid.

3:

“…as possible.
“On July 31, Wolfe set the scheme in motion.
It was a dangerous, almost desperate gamble. To
achieve success, everything had to work
perfectly, a very rare occurrence in amphib
warfare.
“In fact, the assault worked out very badly.
The boats started out in brave alignment, but
most of them beached on flats well offshore, or
had to grope their way through irregular
channels in the mudbanks. The grenadier
companies, who were among the first troops
ashore, broke discipline under the galling fire
from the heights to charge the enemy line in
driblets before they could be supported either
from the boats or from the ford. By the time they
could be recalled and re-formed, the day was
already far advanced. A severe storm,
threatening earlier, now burst, dampening both
spirits and primers.…
The Quebec Campaign
Ibid.

3:

“…and primers.
“Abruptly deciding to cut his losses before
defeat became disaster, Wolfe evacuated his
troops under cover of protective fire from
Saunders’ ‘cats’ and the frigate Centurion. The
whooping savage allies of the French came
pouring down from the heights to butcher the
wounded and scalp the dead. Wolfe had left 500
irreplaceable soldiers on the beach.
“With the benefit of hindsight, military
scholars condemn the Montmorency attack as
badly conceived—a misuse of the mobility of
sea power, since it involved a frontal assault on a
carefully prepared, fixed position. Though the
British hoped also to attack the French flank, it
was not an exposed flank, for it was protected by
the swift-flowing Montmorency River, fordable
at only one place.…”
The Quebec Campaign
Ibid.

3:

“…one place. The shoals that prevented the fleet from sending
its big ships in close enough to lend effective fire support were a
crucial factor. For only when seaborne artillery can lay down a
crushing barrage just ahead of the infantry as it lands, will a
frontal assault on a defended beach have much chance of
success. Furthermore, Montcalm’s interior lines made
reinforcement of any threatened point easy. Only panic among
the French defenders or some grievous blunder by Montcalm
could have enabled the British to gain their objectives. In
weighing risks against the probability of success, the balance
was clearly for not making the effort at this location.
The Quebec Campaign
op. cit., pp. 57-58.
“Wolfe however at this time could see no alternative. Haunted by the memory of the
Rochefort fiasco, He preferred a gallant failure to inaction. As he wrote to Pitt:
“Soon afterward Wolfe himself became seriously ill of fever…”
…the desire to act in conformity to the King’s intentions, induced me to make this trial, persuaded that
a victorious army find no difficulties….7
______
7 Quoted in R. Beatson, Memoirs of Great Britain (London, 1804) II, 290.

3:

“…of fever. It appeared the campaigning season would end with Saunders having to take his ships
out of the river before a decisive blow could be struck.• Now the qualities of Wolfe’s leadership
were put to the test. He had tried a bold stroke and failed. Though perforce the attacker, he was
greatly outnumbered. He had not received the reinforcements and relief he had been led to expect
from Amherst. His ailing body refused the demands of his soaring spirit. He could, indeed, have
sailed for Halifax secure in the reputation of an honorable effort.
“But the record shows that neither Wolfe nor Saunders nor any of their principal subordinates
had any idea of quitting while they had any resources remaining. Even as Wolfe tossed in delirium,
his brigadiers pushed boat expeditions up the river, ever probing for a soft spot. Somewhat
concerned by this possible threat to his right flank, Montcalm detached 3,000 men from his
garrison and the Montmorency defenses to reinforce Bougainville’s guard force. Bougainville,
whose role was to protect the whole N bank of the river above Quebec by moving troops to any
threatened point, now mustered nearly 4,000 men.
“Wolfe was now well enough to resume active command in early September, and eager to try a
new line of attack….”
The Quebec Campaign
op. cit., p. 58.

3:

“…of fever. It appeared the campaigning season would end with Saunders having to take his ships
out of the river before a decisive blow could be struck.• Now the qualities of Wolfe’s leadership
were put to the test. He had tried a bold stroke and failed. Though perforce the attacker, he was
greatly outnumbered. He had not received the reinforcements and relief he had been led to expect
from Amherst. His ailing body refused the demands of his soaring spirit. He could, indeed, have
sailed for Halifax secure in the reputation of an honorable effort.•
“But the record shows that neither Wolfe nor Saunders nor any of their principal subordinates
had any idea of quitting while they had any resources remaining. Even as Wolfe tossed in delirium,
his brigadiers pushed boat expeditions up the river, ever probing for a soft spot. Somewhat
concerned by this possible threat to his right flank,• Montcalm detached 3,000 men from his
garrison and the Montmorency defenses to reinforce Bougainville’s guard force. Bougainville,
whose role was to protect the whole N bank of the river above Quebec by moving troops to any
threatened point, now mustered nearly 4,000 men.
“Wolfe was now well enough to resume active command in early September, and eager to try a
new line of attack….”
The Quebec Campaign
op. cit., p. 58.

3:

“…of attack. While Saunders feinted a landing at the old beachhead, he would try a surprise attack
at the Anse du Foulon, a little boat landing a bare mile and a half upriver from the city walls.• The
movement was to begin the evening of September 12….”
The Quebec Campaign
Ibid.

3:

movement was to begin the evening of September 12.•
“Saunders played his role to perfection, bombarding the ruined lower town and the Beauport
beach with every gun that could be brought to bear, ostentatiously loading the ships’ boats with
marines and seamen as if a new landing was imminent….”
The Quebec Campaign
Ibid.

3:

marines and seamen as if a new landing was imminent. Meanwhile a strong infantry force in flat-
bottomed boats, supported by frigates and sloops-of-war, worked upriver with the tide as if to
effect a lodgment far above the city. It was a fine moonlit night, and Bougainville marched the bulk
of his force along the shore to parallel this cleverly visible movement….”
The Quebec Campaign
Ibid.

3:

marines and seamen as if a new landing was imminent. Meanwhile a strong infantry force in flat-
bottomed boats, supported by frigates and sloops-of-war, worked upriver with the tide as if to
effect a lodgment far above the city. It was a fine moonlit night, and Bougainville marched the bulk
of his force along the shore to parallel this cleverly visible movement.
“But when the tide turned, the British boat force began rowing furiously down river. Aided by
the tidal current it quickly outdistanced Bougainville’s exhausted foot soldiers. The lead boat
scraped ashore shortly before dawn at the foot of the narrow rocky path up the bluff at Anse du
Foulon.• The light infantry swarmed up the slope, and bayoneted the picket force before an alarm
could be sounded. Working against time, the officers swiftly disembarked their troops, and sent the
boats to help bring reinforcements across from Point Levis, the British post directly across the
river. By clear daylight, Wolfe had spirited 4,500 men up to the Plains of Abraham and had them
arrayed in battle order in sight of the walls of Quebec….”
The Quebec Campaign
Ibid.

3:

“…the river. By clear daylight, Wolfe had spirited 4,500 men up to the Plains of Abraham and had
them arrayed in battle order in sight of the walls of Quebec.•
“The shock of Wolfe’s sudden appearance virtually at the city’s gates and the chagrin of seeing
his nearly perfect defenses so readily breached caused Montcalm for once to abandon his steady
good judgement. After all, his immediate command could readily be drawn in behind solid walls
built to withstand siege, and somewhere off to the W was Bougainville,• with nearly 4,000 stout
troops. With a little patience a sortie coordinated with an assault by Bougainville on the British rear
might be effected. In such a battle the odds would scarcely favor the outnumbered British, caught
in a powerful pincers.
“But Montcalm did not wait. He marched out his garrison pell-mell, forming a battle line as it
advanced, its front covered by a swarm of skirmishers and marksmen. The British lines waited
stolidly, while the French regulars marched steadily to a drumbeat. A six-pounder which some
sailors had wormed up the cliff…”
The Quebec Campaign
Ibid.

3:

“…the river. By clear daylight, Wolfe had spirited 4,500 men up to the Plains of Abraham and had
them arrayed in battle order in sight of the walls of Quebec.•
“The shock of Wolfe’s sudden appearance virtually at the city’s gates and the chagrin of seeing
his nearly perfect defenses so readily breached caused Montcalm for once to abandon his steady
good judgement. After all, his immediate command could readily be drawn in behind solid walls
built to withstand siege, and somewhere off to the W was Bougainville,• with nearly 4,000 stout
troops. With a little patience a sortie coordinated with an assault by Bougainville on the British rear
might be effected. In such a battle the odds would scarcely favor the outnumbered British, caught
in a powerful pincers.
“But Montcalm did not wait. He marched out his garrison pell-mell, forming a battle line as it
advanced, its front covered by a swarm of skirmishers and marksmen. The British lines waited
stolidly, while the French regulars marched steadily to a drumbeat. A six-pounder which some
sailors had wormed up the cliff • began rapid fire, and cut swaths in the white-clad French column.
But the disciplined troops closed ranks and came on. As they approached small arms range, they
began to fire, individually and by companies….”
The Quebec Campaign
Ibid.

3:

“…by companies. The British accepted the fire without returning it.
“When the French were within 30 yards, the swords of the British officers flashed up. Then
down. ‘Fire!’….”
The Quebec Campaign
op. cit., pp. 58-59.

3:

“…by companies. The British accepted the fire without returning it.•
“When the French were within 30 yards, the swords of the British officers flashed up. Then
down. ‘Fire!’ That great double-shotted volley may be said to have won Canada for Britain. It
swept great windrows of French soldiery to the earth. Exercising superb fire-discipline, the British
infantry rapidly reloaded, and delivered another volley before the French could recover from the
shock of the first. After that it was a disorganized melee, rapidly turning into a rout. While the
bagpipes of the highland regiment skirled madly, the demoralized French fled the field before the
English bayonets and Scottish claymores.
“Montcalm was mortally wounded; his second and third in command were killed outright. The
British lost their quartermaster-general and one of their brigadiers. Wolfe, leading a charge of the
Louisburg Grenadiers, was himself fatally injured, and was dead in the hour of victory….”
The Quebec Campaign
Ibid.

Benjamin West’s famous Death of General Wolfe painted in 1771

3:

“…of victory.
“The command devolved upon Brigadier George Townshend, who quickly reformed the
troops….rapidly put out siege lines around the city and began the laborious work of building
redoubts and siting batterie. Before this could be far advanced, the garrison recognized the
hopelessness of its position and surrendered.
“This durable triumph of British arms is a monument to excellent inter service cooperation,
rather rare in military and naval annals until World War II. This unity of purpose and achievement
is reflected in Townshend’s report to Pitt, in which he says:”
The Quebec Campaign
Ibid.
I should not do justice to the Admirals, and the naval service, if I neglected this occasion of
acknowledging how much we are indebted for our success to the constant assistance and support
received from them, and the perfect harmony and correspondence which has prevailed throughout all
our operations, in the uncommon difficulties which the nature of this country, in particular, presents to
military operations of a great extent, and which no army can itself solely supply; the immense labour in
artillery, stores and provisions; the long watchings and attendance in boats;the drawing up our artillery
by the seamen, even in the heat of action. It is my duty, short as my command has been, to
acknowledge, for that time, how great a share the navy has had in this successful campaign.8
______
8 Beatson , Memoirs of Great Britain, II, 306.

1759—ANNVS MIRABILIS
1759—MIRACULOUS YEAR
Commemorative medal. In the National Maritime Museum

India—Jewel in the Crown
Portugal, here, as in the case of Africa, was the earliest colonizer as well as the last to leave. The
Dutch also claimed trading stations during their Golden Age. By the eighteenth century, the
British and French East India Companies were the principal contenders.
The Seven Years War would decide the issue…
jbp
From this standpoint our colonies still remain what James Mill cynically described them as being,
"a vast system of outdoor relief for the upper classes.” J.A. Hobson, Imperialism. (1902), I, iv, 15

Provinces of India, earlier Presidencies of British India and still earlier, Presidency towns, were the
administrative divisions of British governance in the subcontinent. In one form or other they existed
between 1612 and 1947, conventionally divided into three historical periods.
• During 1612–1757, the East India Company set up "factories" (trading posts) in several locations,
mostly in coastal India, with the consent of the Mughal emperors or local rulers. Its rivals were the
merchant trading companies of Holland and France. By the mid-18th century, three "Presidency
towns": Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta had grown in size.
• During the period of Company rule in India, 1757–1858, the Company gradually acquired
sovereignty over large parts of India, now called "Presidencies." However, it also increasingly came
under British government oversight, in effect sharing sovereignty with the Crown. At the same time
it gradually lost its mercantile privileges.
• Following the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the Company's remaining powers were transferred to the
Crown. In the new British Raj (1858–1947), sovereignty extended to a few new regions, such as
Upper Burma. Increasingly, however, unwieldy presidencies were broken up into “Provinces”.
Wikipedia

Rigobert Bonne (1727–1795), Carte hydro-geo -graphique des Indes Orientales en deca et au de la du Gange avec leur archipel …, Paris, 1771
—Wiki Français

Mahé
1725
Pondicherry
1674
Chandernagore
1675
Calcutta
1690
Madras
1639
Bombay
1638

3:

op. cit., p. 59.
“The winning of India for the British raj is a saga in itself—the most decisive chapter of which
was written during the Seven Years’ War. The prime contestants in this theater of war were the
great trading companies—the French and British East India Companies, each almost a sovereign
power with its own fleet and army. But the prizes of success were so obvious and considerable that
each was able to secure the aid of royal forces. Ultimate British victory was due in part to a slight
preponderance in Indian waters, in part to the genius of Robert Clive,• commander of the HEIC’s
troops, in part to the professional skill of the RN’s admirals, Charles Watson • in the early part of
the campaign and , after Watson’s death in 1757, Sir George Pocock.•
“The French naval commander, the Comte d’Aché,• was a competent tactician, whom Pocock in
several engagements failed to defeat decisively. But, after the fall of Chandernagor,…”
Events in India

Chandannagar was established as a French colony in 1673, when the French obtained permission from Ibrahim Khan, the Nawab
of Bengal, to establish a trading post on the right bank of the Hughli River. Bengal was then a province of the Mughal Empire. It
became a permanent French settlement in 1688, and in 1730 Joseph François Dupleix was appointed governor of the city, during
whose administration more than two thousand brick houses were erected in the town and a considerable maritime trade was
carried on. For a time, Chandannagar was the main center for European commerce in Bengal.
In 1756 war broke out between France and Great Britain, and Colonel Robert Clive of the British East India Company and Admiral
Charles Watson of the British Navy bombarded and captured Chandannagar on 23 March 1757.• The town's fortiﬁcations and
many houses were demolished thereafter, and Chandannagar's importance as a commercial center was eclipsed by that of
Calcutta just downriver. Chandernagore was restored to the French in 1763, but retaken by the British in 1794 in the Napoleonic
Wars.—Wiki

Attack and capture of the position of the French company of the Indies at Chandernagore in 1757 during the Seven Years War.
1771, by Dominic Serres—Wiki

View of Fort William [Calcutta] done after the painting in the Court Room in the [East India] Company’s House in Leaden
Hall Street [London]. 1735, mezzotint by Elisha Kirkhall—Wiki

Ibid.
“…Sir George Pocock.•
“The French naval commander, the Comte d’Aché,• was a competent tactician, whom Pocock in
several engagements failed to defeat decisively. But, after the fall of Chandernagor,• d’Aché was
handicapped by having no base for refitting nearer than Mauritius, some 2,000 miles to the SW,
across the Indian Ocean. Pocock could refit and wait out the monsoon season in Bombay.
Furthermore, d’Aché failed to receive from France needed reinforcements and supplies.
“The major naval phase of the Indian campaign occurred between April 1578 and October 1759,
when d’Aché sailed his battered fleet away from India for the last time….”
Events in India
3:

Location of Mauritius

Detail—The Coromandel Coast—Wiki Français
“…last time.
“The first major fleet engagement
occurred on April 29, 1758, when Pocock
sailed his squadron to the relief of Fort St.
David, a British post on the Coromandel (SE)
Coast of India….
3:

Events in India
Ibid.

Detail—The Coromandel Coast—Wiki Français
“…last time.
“The first major fleet engagement
occurred on April 29, 1758, when Pocock
sailed his squadron to the relief of Fort St.
David, a British post on the Coromandel (SE)
Coast of India….
“With seven ships, Pocock gained the
weather gage of d’Ache’s eight, and
attempted a conventional attack in formal
column. The three rear ships of Pocock’s
column straggled behind the van. The lead
ships suffered the concentrated fire of the
French line when d’Ache’s force wore ship
and defiled past the British flagship. The
French withdrew as the British rear finally
came to the support of its van ships. The
British ships that had been engaged were far
too crippled aloft for Pocock to attempt
pursuit. Fort St. David was obliged to
surrender to forces ashore.
3:

Events in India
Ibid.

op. cit., pp. 59-60.
“…forces ashore.
“A second engagement took
place in August under much the
same conditions and with similar
results. Pocock was bold enough in
seeking out his adversary, but in
attack he was firmly committed to
the conterminous line. D’Aché was
chary in accepting action, always
aware that his adversary had better
local logistical support and could
more readily repair damages. But
he handled his ships skillfully and
parried Pocock’s attacks.
“A final major action took place
after the monsoon season in
September 1759, when Pocock
sought out the French off
Pondicherry….”
In the center is a large ship, ﬂying the East India Company's ﬂag. Fort St David is on the
shore to the left, and on the extreme left a building with Dutch colors.— c. 1771, by
Francis Swain—Wiki
3:

Events in India

Le Saint-Louis de l'escadre de d'Aché attaqué par le Pitt dans les eaux voisines de Pondichéry en 1758 ou
1759. Le combat est indécis. (Tableau de Lawson Dunn)—Wiki Français

Pondichéry au xviiie siècle. Vue des magasins de la Compagnie des Indes, de l'amirauté et de la maison du
gouverneur (Lorient, Musée de la Compagnie des Indes). Cette vision, fantaisiste, est destinée à rassurer
les investisseurs.—Wiki Français

Plan de la ville de Pondichéry dédié au gouverneur général Joseph François Dupleix (XVIIIe siècle).—Wiki
Français

op. cit., p. 60.
“…off Pondicherry. After considerable prior maneuvering, d’Aché, with eleven ships to Pocock’s
nine, once more accepted the British attack. Though this too was a conventional line-against-line
action, it was fought at close range and with uncommon fury by both sides. The British in this
single engagement suffered 569 casualties, and the French losses were on the order of 1,500 killed
and wounded. Here again the French withdrew, and the British were too severely damaged in
rigging to give chase.
“These battles were all tactical draws. In only one of them was even one ship lost, a French
vessel that had to be beached after the action to save her personnel. These encounters were object
lessons in the indecisiveness of formalist tactics. Yet they had great strategic importance. From the
British point of view, since Clive was winning the war ashore, and since reinforcements and
supplies could be sent freely from Britain and only with great difficulty from France, for Pocock
merely to continue contesting the seas around the subcontinent was enough to insure ultimate
British victory.
“Presently d’Aché abandoned the whole area to the British….In the peninsula Clive profited
from this sea supremacy and destroyed the remaining French forces. Though Pondicherry and
some other minor enclaves were restored at the peace, India was to remain substantially British
until after World War II….
3:

Events in India

Rigobert Bonne (1727–1795), Carte hydro-geo -graphique des Indes Orientales en deca et au de la du Gange avec leur
archipel …, Paris 1771—Wiki Français
Sur l'immense théâtre d'opération de l'océan Indien, d'Aché réussit avec une petite escadre
à ravitailler deux fois Pondichéry, mais sans pouvoir sauver la ville.—Wiki Français

The West Indies
1759—ANNVS MIRABILIS
1759—MIRACULOUS YEAR
Commemorative medal. In the National Maritime Museum

op. cit., p. 60.
“In the mid-18th century, the islands of the Caribbean enjoyed an economic importance hard to
realize today. Enormous fortunes [and the political power they could buy in Parliament and royal
courts] were made by the sugar planters. Indeed, except for the tea and spices of the Far East, the
West Indies supplied nearly all the tropical products taken by the European market. As buyers these
islands were also important in the cruel but profitable African slave trade. As will be apparent in
subsequent [sessions], their trade relationships with the 13 English colonies on the North American
seaboard were also significant, though largely illicit….”
Operations in the West Indies
3:


op. cit., pp. 60-61.
“…and Spain.
“Since ’filching sugar islands’ had become established practice in maritime war, Pitt at the
earliest convenient opportunity set about uprooting France from her valuable Caribbean
possessions. Apart from his general empire-building objective, Pitt was motivated by the
depredations of privateers based on Martinique and Guadeloupe. From the beginning of the war,
these had raised havoc with English commercial shipping in the area, particularly where the trade
routes converged on passes in the island barrier offered by the Lesser Antilles.
“In early 1759 Commodore John Moore • with nine ships of the line and a frigate escorted a
military force under Major General Peregrine Hopson,• a courageous but elderly and infirm
veteran, to attack Martinique. Operations against Fort Royal, and later against St. Pierre, though
bravely sustained by the rank and file, were unsuccessful—partly because of the strength of the
defense, but also because of the vacillation, lack of thorough planning, and faulty cooperation
between the military and the naval command. The expedition was then diverted to the less
heavily defended Guadeloupe….”
3:


op. cit., p.. 61.
“…defended Guadeloupe.
“Here in the face of discouraging advice from the chief engineer, Moore proceeded to
bombard and silence the fortifications of Basse-Terre, the capital. The troops were able to occupy
the town and forts without opposition. But the French troops made a campaign of it in the
interior of the island, so that it was three months before the whole of Guadeloupe was secured.
Major General John Barrington,• who succeeded to the military command on the death of
Hopson in February, showed a vigor and imagination lacking in his former chief. Though
outnumbered, he maintained a calculated program of small attacks, using boats and small craft to
get behind enemy strong points by water. The French finally surrendered just a day too soon.
One day after the capitulation, a relief force…appeared, now too late to undo Barrington’s
skillful work.
‘In 1760 Commodore James Douglas and Lord Rollo stormed Dominica. In 1762 a very
strong force under Admiral George Rodney • and General Moncton captured Martinique in a
three weeks’ campaign. Grenada fell simultaneously. Captain Augustus John Hervey was at once
dispatched to St. Lucia. Both it and S. Vincent’s were presently in British hands—a clean sweep
of all the French possessions in the Lesser Antilles….”
3:


Padﬁeld, p. 213.
“Ferdinand of Spain had died in 1759. His successor, Charles III, fearing that Great
Britain, when she had seized all France’s colonies, would turn again on the Spanish
empire, prepared to enter the war on Louis’ side. At the same time, in Britain the enormous
cost of the war and Pitt’s • evident ambition to break France completely as a naval and
colonial power had raised a powerful peace faction within the government. Its leaders
considered Pitt’s system, ‘viz. that of a monopoly of all naval power…at least as
dangerous to the liberties of Europe as that of Louis XIV.’
“Failing to persuade the Cabinet to accept a preemptive strike against the Spanish
treasure fleet, Pitt resigned in October 1761.• His successors nonetheless continued
preparations for seizing the last pockets of French power in the West Indies, and when
Spain entered the war in early 1762—after the safe arrival of her treasure fleet—they
mounted an even greater expedition to take the key base of Havana in the Spanish-
American system….”
11
Quiberon Bay, 1759

“…Lesser Antilles.
“Spain entered the war in January 1762. Earlier the combination of Spanish and French fleets
could well have presented a mortal danger to England. But by now the French fleet had been
broken, and Spain’s involvement at this time spelled to England merely opportunity. For Spain’s
treasure-laden convoys were an open invitation to depredation by the cruisers of the British navy,
and Spain had enormously rich dependencies in the West Indies (hereafter, WI) and the Far East.
“Since England already had squadrons and soldiers in the WI, an operation against Havana
was put in train almost at once. It was hoped that with reinforcements from England and
America, it would be possible for the Earl of Albemarle • to take at least 15,000 effectives
against Spain’s Caribbean bastion. Admiral Sir George Pocock • would have 50-odd fighting
ships (including 22 rated at 60 guns or more). With transports and auxiliaries the invading
armada would amount to about 200 sail….” Sea Power., p.. 61.
3:


op. cit., p.. 62.
“…200 sail.
“With a small force Pocock and Albemarle sailed from England to Martinique, where it was
planned at first to assemble the expedition. But the supporting vessels had not arrived, and the
admiral was faced with a difficult command decision. Should he rendezvous with Douglas in Jamaica
and proceed W of Cuba along the safe commercial route….”
3:


op. cit., p.. 62.
“…200 sail.
“With a small force Pocock and Albemarle sailed from England to Martinique, where it was
planned at first to assemble the expedition. But the supporting vessels had not arrived, and the
admiral was faced with a difficult command decision. Should he rendezvous with Douglas in Jamaica
and proceed W of Cuba along the safe commercial route,• or should he seek to gain surprise by
concentrating his force on the Windward Passage (between Cuba and Santo Domingo), and proceed
via the tortuous and badly charted Old Bahama Channel along the N coast of Cuba?…”
3:


op. cit., p.. 62.
“…coast of Cuba?• The risks of the latter course were considerable. A French squadron stronger than
his own was thought to be at Cap Français,• on the N coast of Santo Domingo. In the 600-mile reef-
studded Bahama Channel, a storm could mean disaster. But by successfully transiting the little-used
passage, he would not only insure surprise; he would gain time. He would also be operating between
the French at Cap Français and the Spanish fleet in Havana. A union of these forces would thereby be
made less likely. Furthermore his route would favor a speedier meeting with the transport force
expected from America….”
3:


“…from America.
“Pocock considered that the advantages of assembling off Cape St. Nicholas • outweighed the
dangers. Dispatches were sent to Hervey and to RAdm Sir James Douglas, commanding the Jamaica
squadron. Pocock then moved his convoy N through the Mona Passage…,”
Ibid.
3:


“…Mona Passage and coasted westward along Santo Domingo. When he reached a point where a
French sally from Cap Français might endanger his force, the admiral was reassured to find Hervey
with seven of the line already blockading the roadstead….”
Ibid.
3:


“…the roadstead.•
“Sending a frigate ahead to survey, Pocock awaited Douglas off Cape St. Nicholas for a week.
When Douglas’ nine ships appeared, the British set out at once to thread their way through the Old
Bahama Channel….”
Ibid.
3:


“Sending a frigate ahead to survey, Pocock awaited Douglas off Cape St. Nicholas for a week.
When Douglas’ nine ships appeared, the British set out at once to thread their way through the Old
Bahama Channel.• Local pilots were procured, but their value was slight. An old Spanish chart given
to Pocock by Lord Anson and the survey work of Capt Elphinstone in the frigate Richmond were
however sufficient ….” Ibid.
3:


“…however sufficient. The most dangerous narrows was transited at night, with beacon fires on the
beaches marking the way. In a week’s time the whole armada was clear of the passage and off
Mantanzas, a day’s sail from Havana. Pocock’s gamble had succeeded. To the Spanish garrison the
surprise was complete….” Ibid.
3:


“…however sufficient. The most dangerous narrows was transited at night, with beacon fires on the
beaches marking the way. In a week’s time the whole armada was clear of the passage and off
Mantanzas, a day’s sail from Havana. Pocock’s gamble had succeeded. To the Spanish garrison the
surprise was complete.•
“The false sense of security enjoyed by His Excellency, Don Juan de Prado Porto Carrero, the
Captain General, was understandable. In 150 years Havana had never been captured. With a
landlocked harbor shielded by powerful fortifications, the city had come to be termed the ‘Gibraltar
of the Caribbean.’ The city itself lies just to the W of Havana Bay, the entrance to which is flanked by
the Castillo de la Punta on the city side,• and the Castillo del Morro to the E at the end of a
promontory which makes the bay completely landlocked. Like the bony spine of a boar, a rocky ridge
called la Cabaña runs E-W along this cape.….”
Ibid.
3:


3:

“…this cape.
“On June 6, 1762, the British arrived off the Coximar River, 15 miles E of the city, where the
sandy bay offered a suitable landing place. After battering down the blockhouses with cannon fire,
Pocock sent the troops ashore at this point,…”
Ibid.

3:

“…this cape.
Pocock sent the troops ashore at this point,• and then proceeded to threaten the city by a feinted
landing to the W of it.
“Had Albemarle fully exploited the advantage of tactical surprise, he might well have taken
Havana by a coup de main without a costly siege of the Morro.• But Albemarle was a continental
general, trained in the school of formalism. He was determined to invest the Morro and take it by
storm if necessary….”
Ibid.

3:

“…this cape.
storm if necessary.•
“So for nearly two months the rank-and-file suffered agonies in the tropical summer [the WI was
widely regarded as a death sentence for soldiers because of yellow fever]. Guns from the fleet were
laboriously winched into position. Above-ground works had to be built on the rocky ledges since
there was too little earth for entrenchments….”
Ibid.

3:

“…this cape.
storm if necessary.•
“So for nearly two months the rank-and-file suffered agonies in the tropical summer [the WI was
widely regarded as a death sentence for soldiers because of yellow fever]. Guns from the fleet were
laboriously winched into position. Above-ground works had to be built on the rocky ledges since
there was too little earth for entrenchments.• The fascines took fire from enemy shot. There was no
water on the whole peninsula; it had to be brought from the fleet, and there was never enough.
Spanish resistance was stubborn and unremitting….”
Ibid.

Bombardment of the Morro Castle, Havana 1 July 1762 by Richard Patton.
Left to Right: HMS Marlborough, HMS Dragon, HMS Cambridge—Wikipedia

“…and unremitting.
“Pocock’s task of blockade was rendered almost needless by the Spaniards themselves. In spite
of the very strong fortifications on each side of the half-mile-wide entrance to the harbor, they
deliberately sank three of their ships of the line as blockships in the channel, thereby locking in
their remaining nine, and incidentally freeing Pocock from the responsibility of guarding against a
sortie.
“As in all WI ops, the most severe toll of casualties was from disease, especially yellow fever,
which struck down many times the number lost in battle. The reinforcements from Lord Amherst
were slow in arriving, and for a time in July it began to look as though the expedition would fail.•
“But though a mediocre tactician, Albemarle had perseverance. Sappers finally completed a
tunnel under the shoreward walls of the Morro, where a mine was exploded, and the redcoats
swarmed through the narrow gap it blew out. They hunted down the defenders in the stone
corridors of the fortress in a matter of minutes. With the Morro in British hands, the city also was
obliged to surrender….”
op. cit., pp. 62-63.
3:


The red-coated troops, from the main siege camp to the left (east) of the castle are here shown are clearly seen marching in line across
the narrow parapet of the transverse wall dividing the castle's deep dry-ditch defence from the sea and storming up crumbling rampart
into the castle. Over them, explosive mortar shells arc into the castle precinct, all set against a dramatically stormy, lowering sky.

The terms of surrender for Havana were concluded on 13 August and in the painting a flotilla of boats of the fleet are shown
ferrying in the occupation forces on the following day. At the same time as this was taking place, sailors dismantled the boom
defence, visible in the middle distance. The Union flag flies from the fort and the men-of-war are firmly established in the harbor.

The English fleet moved into Havana harbor once the obstructions had been cleared on 21 August. On the left of the picture,
Commodore Augustus Keppel in the 'Valiant', is leading in his squadron first, an honour accorded him by Admiral Sir George
Pocock. On the right Pocock's 'Namur', flying his flag as Admiral of the Blue, together with the Union flag and blue ensign, is
shown following with the bulk of the fleet.

The scene refers to the conclusion of the naval operation. The painting is a complex panorama depicted from the
southern end of the harbor, showing the captured Spanish warships at anchor, ships on the stocks being burnt at left and
the sunlit fortress of El Morro seen down an open sightline at the centre right. The tropical cloud formation in the
background is an important element of the composition and execution.

“…to surrender.
“Few conquests of any war have had the immediate cash value of the capture of Havana. Spain
lost a fifth of their fleet—in nearly undamaged condition. Over a hundred major pieces of ordnance
and great quantities of there war materials and commercial valuables (including chests of specie)
fell into British hands.• Both the commanding general and the admiral received £122,000 in prize
money.9
“In the Havana op the role of the fleet was indispensable—both in fighting and in logistic
support. Like Saunders in Quebec, Pocock at Havana set an example of selfless cooperation for
subsequent naval commanders. Albemarle himself wrote:
op. cit., p. 63.
______
9 There is an instructive sidelight on the social hierarchy of the 18th century in the fact that a private’s share was £4
1s. 8 ½ d; an able seaman’s £3 14s. 9 3/4d.
…Sir George Pocock, and Commodore Keppel have exerted themselves in a most particular manner;
and I may venture to say, that there never was a joint undertaking carried on with more harmony and
zeal on both sides…10
10 Letter to Lord Egremont, quoted in Beatson, op. cit., II, 566.
3:


“Because control of the seas gave the British a virtually free choice of where and when to strike,
Britain was not merely able to conduct those major ops which would contribute materially to the
outcome of the war. She was also from time to time capable of investing a fraction of her power in
‘sideshow ops,’ which had but commercial importance, or which might slightly improve her
bargaining position at the peace table. Her seizure in 1758 of the French slave-trading stations of
Goree and Senegal in the Guinea Gulf is an example. And in 1760 Pitt renewed ‘conjunct ops’
against the French coast, sending a considerable force to seize Belle Île.
“In 1762 a group of private English adventurers equipped a shoestring expedition to Buenos
Aires. With two frigates purchased from the British government and two small Portuguese men-of-
war, and 500 Portuguese troops, they set out from Rio de Janeiro to try to do in Spain’s vast
mainland colony what Clive and his little handful had done at Plassey and Windewash. Through
poor piloting in the Plata estuary and through the mischances of war this effort came to disaster.
“The capstone of the British war effort overseas was the Manila expedition, undertaken by
HEIC troops under Brigadier William Draper and an eight-ship squadron commanded by VAdm
Samuel Cornish. After bombardment and siege, Manila fell in less than two weeks. The Governor
surrendered the entire Philippines and ransomed Manila for $4,000,000 (Spanish). Since the
squadron also captured the Acapulco galleon with $3,000,000 in specie and bullion, the prize
money rivaled that in the capture of Havana.”
Other Operations
Ibid.
3:


“The complicated pattern of European power politics shifted with bewildering rapidity in the
last stages of the Seven Years’ War. With victorious peace almost in sight, Pitt resigned when the
Cabinet refused his demand for an immediate declaration of war against Spain.11 Spain attempted
invasion of Portugal, England’s ancient ally, only to be frustrated by a British fleet and
expeditionary force. Pitt’s bumbling successor, Lord Bute, alienated Frederick the Great and
destroyed the Prussian alliance. The Russian Czarina died, and was succeeded by the nearly idiotic
Prussophile Peter III, who signed an immediate peace with Frederick. Peter III was presently
assassinated, but Catherine II, who succeeded him, would not renew the war. Sweden withdrew
from the Grand Coalition. Their allies gone, nearly exhausted, and without further expedient,
France and Austria both sued for peace.
“The Peace of Paris (1763) represented the high-water mark of Britain’s ‘Old Empire.’
Everywhere victorious, the British might well have demanded more than they took. And they took
the lion’s share….”
The End of the War
op. cit., pp. 63-64.
______
11 Pitt’s resignation is ironic in that events made the declaration inevitable soon thereafter in any case.
3:


“The Peace of Paris (1763) represented the high-water mark of Britain’s ‘Old Empire.’”—Ibid.

“…lion’s share. Britain received Canada and a cession of French claims to all territory E of the
Mississippi. She thereby unwittingly defined the boundaries of the then-undreamed-of United
States of America, to be established 13 years later. From France Britain also received Senegal.
From Spain she received Florida in exchange for Cuba. She had Minorca returned to her. To
France were restored Belle Île, Guadeloupe, Martinique, St. Lucia, Goree, the French trading
stations in India (which France promised not to fortify), and the little islands of St. Pierre and
Miquelon in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. To Spain were restored Cuba and the Philippines. France
helped to make the treaty more acceptable to Spain by ceding to her New Orleans and the
Louisiana Territory, a primeval empire of unsurveyed dimensions to the W of the Mississippi.”
“The Seven Years’ War was the first of the world wars. It is the archetype of wars between a
strong land power and a strong sea power. In it Britain followed the pattern she had employed
earlier against Spain, Holland, and France of allying with other continental powers against a major
continental power….”
The End of the War
op. cit., p. 64.
Summary
3:


“…lion’s share. Britain received Canada and a cession of French claims to all territory E of the
Mississippi. She thereby unwittingly defined the boundaries of the then-undreamed-of United
States of America, to be established 13 years later. From France Britain also received Senegal.
From Spain she received Florida in exchange for Cuba. She had Minorca returned to her. To
France were restored Belle Île, Guadeloupe, Martinique, St. Lucia, Goree, the French trading
stations in India (which France promised not to fortify), and the little islands of St. Pierre and
Miquelon in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. To Spain were restored Cuba and the Philippines. France
helped to make the treaty more acceptable to Spain by ceding to her New Orleans and the
Louisiana Territory, a primeval empire of unsurveyed dimensions to the W of the Mississippi.”
“The Seven Years’ War was the first of the world wars. It is the archetype of wars between a
strong land power and a strong sea power. In it Britain followed the pattern she had
employed earlier against Spain, Holland, and France of allying with other continental powers
against a major continental power….”
The End of the War
op. cit., p. 64.
Summary
3:


“…continental power. The distinctive strategic feature of the Seven Years’ War, from the British
point of view, was Pitt’s Plan,• a strategy toward which Britain had been groping since the Anglo-
Dutch Wars.
“On the worldwide scale, Pitt’s strategy, like all strategies that achieve true concentration, had
both a hitting and a holding aspect. The main British offensive, the hitting aspect, was carried out
beyond the seas—using England’s naval preponderance to support attacks on the colonies of
France and Spain. Capture of these colonies expanded the British Empire, promoted trade, and
thereby produced wealth. A part of this increased wealth went to subsidize Britain’s allies on the
continent of Europe. The holding aspect consisted of 1) the efforts of the RN in first
blockading and then destroying the French fleet and 2) the efforts of Britain’s allies, chiefly
Frederick the Great of Prussia,• in absorbing French wealth and containing French
manpower that might otherwise have been used to build up the French navy, break the
British blockade, and succor France’s overseas possessions.
“Within the European theater also, Pitt’s Plan had a hitting and a holding aspect. Here
Frederick’s army was the principal hitting element, while British ‘conjunct expeditions’ along the
coast of France…”
Summary
Ibid.
3:


“…of France were intended in part to make the French sufficiently fearful of an invasion to hold
back troops that might otherwise have been sent against Frederick.
“France’s counter-strategy against Britain consisted of 1) raids on British maritime
commerce, 2) attempts to defend French colonies, and 3) attempts to invade England.
Britain’s naval preponderance rendered all such efforts futile. Belleisle’s scheme for invading the
British Isles by eluding the Channel fleet died in the planning stage, but his Med diversion resulted
in the repulse of Byng’s • fleet and the capture of Minorca (1756). Later French invasion plans,
requiring the combining of the Toulon and Brest fleets in the English Channel, were nullified when
the former was destroyed by Boscawen • in the Battle of Lagos Bay (1759) and the latter by
Hawke in the Battle of Quiberon Bay (1759).
“While France was expending her strength and treasure in the fruitless war in Europe, relatively
minor British forces were capturing French possessions all around the world. In 1758 Amherst •
and Boscawen opened the St. Lawrence River by capturing Louisburg. In 1759 • Wolfe and
Saunders assured the British conquest of Canada by capturing Quebec. At the same time • Clive,
with the naval cooperation of Watson and Pocock was winning control over India…”
Ibid.
3:

Summary

“…over India, and such army-navy teams as Barrington and Moore, Rollo and Douglas, and
Moncton and Rodney were seizing French possessions in the WI. When Spain allied herself with
France in 1762, she was promptly dispossessed of Havana by Albemarle and Pocock,• and of
Manila by Draper and Cornish. Such conquests were rendered possible by French preoccupation
with the European war and by the sea control of the RN that isolated the colonies, denying them
assistance from the homeland.
“All wars have their object lessons for the thoughtful student. The Seven Years’ War, more
than most, is replete with lessons and examples. The following are among those most evident.
The strict adherence to line tactics as enjoined by the Permanent Fighting Instructions
[today’s ROE], prevented decisive victory, since it rendered tactical concentration nearly
impossible. The Minorca action and the several engagements of Pocock and d’Aché in Indian
waters exemplify this. On the other hand melee tactics, initiated by General Chase, won
smashing victories at Lagos and Quiberon Bay.
“In amphib war, careful planning, unstinted inter service cooperation, boldness of
leadership, and perseverance are essential. These were lacking in the Rochefort op and in the
first Martinique invasion, both of which failed….”
op. cit., pp. 64-65.
3:

Summary

“…which failed. Wolfe and Saunders at Quebec, Moore and Barrington at Guadeloupe, and •
Albemarle and Pocock at Havana showed the qualities necessary to accomplish this most difficult
of military tasks—assault on land positions from the sea.•
“Pitt is the model of the CinC, characterized by unity of purpose, consistency, and
decisiveness. In the chess game of war, he saw the board as a whole. He disposed his pieces so
that each aided all the others. The ineptness of the British conduct of the war before Pitt came to
power, and its lessened efficiency after he left the government, evidenced his indispensability.
Because Pitt thought naturally in grand strategic terms, he could insure not merely victory, but a
chance for England to secure all her war aims.
“Above everything else the great lesson of the Seven Years’ War is the pervasive and
inexorable power of naval preponderance in a world war. The British navy at once kept the
tight little island secure from invasion and made possible winning half the world for empire. Pitt’s
vision, in which the continental war became secondary, was based on his perception of the
potential of sea power. It is natural that the great American naval historian,• Alfred Thayer Mahan,
should have turned to the history of England between 1660 and 1783 to mine object lessons to
support his sea power thesis. In his chapter on the Seven Years’ War he concludes,….”
op. cit., p. 65.
Summary
3:


Mahan Hall
Ernest Flagg, architect—1908
Home of the English, History and Government Department,
U.S. Naval Academy, Annapolis, MD

[Sea power]…made [England] rich, and in turn protected the trade by which she had her wealth. With
her money she upheld her few auxiliaries, mainly Prussia and Hanover, in their desperate strife. Her
power was everywhere her ships could reach, and there was none to dispute the sea to her.Where she
would, she went, and with her went her guns and her troops. By this mobility her forces were
multiplied, those of her enemies distracted. Ruler of the seas, she everywhere obstructed its highways.
The enemies’ fleets could not join; no great fleets could get out, or if it did, it was only to meet at once,
with uninsured officers and crews, those who were veterans in gales and warfare. Save in the case of
Minorca, she carefully held her own sea-bases and eagerly seized those of the enemy. What a lion in
the path was Gibraltar to the French squadrons of Toulon and Brest! What hope for French succor to
Canada, when the English fleet had Louisburg under its lee?
“The one nation that gained in this war was that which used the sea in peace to earn its wealth, and
ruled it in war by the extent of its navy, by the number of its subjects who lived on the sea or by the
sea, and by its numerous bases of operations scattered over the globe.12
Ibid.
Summary
______
12 Mahan, Influence of Sea Power upon History, 328-9.
3:

Naval School
Founded October 10th. 1845.
JAMES K. POLK
President of the U.States.
GEO. BANCROFT
Secretary of the Navy

The ‘first world war’ set the stage for the Age of the Democratic Revolutions.
The immense war debts of both Britain and France will set in train urgent and
counterproductive efforts to regain financial soundness.
And, when the British North American colonies rebel, France will sense an
opportunity for renewing ‘The Great War for Empire.’ Which will only hasten her
own encounter with democratic revolution.
And once again maritime supremacy will be decisive.
But that’s another story…
jbp

Sea power-session 10-empire

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