2. Learning Outcomes
• Explain prenatal development and the role that
sex hormones play.
• Explain the physical, cognitive, moral, social,
and emotional development of children.
Learning Outcomes
3. Learning Outcomes
• Explain the physical, cognitive, moral, social and
emotional development of adolescents.
• Explain the physical, cognitive, moral, social,
and emotional development of adults.
Learning Outcomes
4. Truth or Fiction?
Your heart started beating when you were only
one-fifth of an inch long and weighed a fraction
of an ounce.
Prior to 6 months, or so, of age, “out of sight” is
literally “out of mind.”
5. Truth or Fiction?
The architect Frank Lloyd Wright designed New
York’s innovative spiral-shaped Guggenheim
Museum when he was 65 years old.
Alzheimer’s disease is a normal part of aging.
7. Prenatal Development
• Germinal Stage
– Conception through implantation
– Zygote divides and becomes implanted in the
uterine wall
8. Prenatal Development
• Embryonic Stage
– Implantation until about 8th
week
– Major organ systems are formed
– Genetic code (XX or XY) causes sex organs to
differentiate
• Y sex chromosome – testes form and
produce androgens
9. Prenatal Development
• Embryonic Stage
– Embryo is suspended in amniotic sac
• Nutrients and wastes are exchanged with
mother through placenta
• Embryo is connected to placenta by
umbilical cord
10. Prenatal Development
• Fetal Stage
– Beginning of third month until birth
– Characterized by maturation and gains in size
13. Physical Development
• Reflexes
– Simple, unlearned, stereotypical responses
elicited by specific stimuli
• Rooting and sucking, withdrawal,
startle(moro), grasping
• Motor Development
– Brain maturation and environmental factors
15. Physical Development
• Perceptual Development
– Within days, infant can track moving light
– At 2-months prefer human face as visual stimuli
• Fixation time – measure of visual preference
– Perceive depth about time
– begin crawling
• Visual cliff experiments
18. Physical Development
• Perceptual Development
– Newborns hear normally; prefer mother’s voice
• Show no preference for father’s voice
19. Cognitive Development
• The way in which children mentally represent and
think about the world
– Jean Piaget – Cognitive-development theory
– Lev Vygotsky – Sociocultural theory
– Lawrence Kohlberg – Theory of moral
development
20. Piaget’s Cognitive-Development Theory
• Schema
– “Mental structure” in organizing knowledge
• Assimilation
– Respond to new stimuli through existing habit
• Accommodation
– Create new ways of responding to objects
21. Stages of Cognitive-Development Theory
• Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years old)
– Coordination of sensory information and motor
activity
– Object Permanence
• Before 6 months of age does not mentally
represent objects
23. Stages of Cognitive-Development Theory
• Preoperational Stage (2-7 years old)
– Use words and symbols to represent objects
and relationships among them
– Egocentrism
– Animism
– Artificialism
– Conservation
• Objective Responsibility
25. Stages of Cognitive-Development Theory
• Concrete Operational Stage
– Beginning of capacity for adult logic
– Decentration
– Reversibility
• Subjective Moral Judgment
27. Evaluation of Piaget’s Theory
• Piaget tended to underestimate children’s abilities
• Egocentrism and conservation appear to be more
continuous than Piaget thought
• Developmental sequences do not vary
28. Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
• Continuous theory focused on influence of
culture and children’s interactions with elders
• Zone of proximal development (ZPD)
• Scaffolding
• Children internalize explanations that
encourage skill development
29. Lawrence Kohlberg’s
Theory of Moral Development
• Use of “moral dilemma” story to explore
reasoning of right and wrong
• Stage theory with a specific sequence
30. Lawrence Kohlberg’s
Theory of Moral Development
• Preconventional Level
– Base judgment on consequences of behavior
• Stage 1 – Obedience and punishment
• Stage 2 – Good behavior allows people to
satisfy their needs
31. Lawrence Kohlberg’s
Theory of Moral Development
• Conventional Level
– Base judgment on conformity to conventional
standards of right and wrong
• Stage 3 – Good-boy orientation
• Stage 4 – Judgments are based on rules
that maintain social order
32.
33. Lawrence Kohlberg’s
Theory of Moral Development
• Postconventional Level
– Base judgment on need to maintain social
order and personal conscience
– “I fear”
– “I am trying to be moral as much as possible”
34. Evaluation of Kohlberg’s
Theory of Moral Development
• Research suggests moral reasoning does follow
a sequence
• Most people do not reach postconventional
level (consistent with formal operational
thought)
• Kohlberg underestimated the influence of
social, cultural, and educational institutions and
parents
35. Social and Emotional Development
• Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Development
– Eight stages that represent life crises
• Trust versus Mistrust
• Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt
• Initiative vs. Guilt
• Industry versus Inferiority
40. Attachment
• Emotional tie between one animal/person and
another specific individual
– Mary Salter Ainsworth
• Behavior that defines attachment
– Attempts to maintain contact
– Anxiety when separated
41. Attachment
• Strange Situation
– Method to assess infants’ response to
separations and reunions with caregivers and
a stranger
• Three Types of Attachment
– Secure attachment
– Avoidant attachment
– Ambivalent/resistant attachment
42. Securely Attached babies: happier, more sociable, more
cooperative, have longer attention spans, less impulsive,
liked better by peers and teachers, have fewer behavior
problems.
Avoidant attachment: infants are least distressed by their
mother’s departure. Play by themselves and ignore their
mothers when they return.
Ambivalent/resistant attachment: infants are the most
emotional showing severe signs of distress when their
mothers leave and show ambivalence upon reunion by
alternately clinging to and pushing their mother away.
43. Stages of Attachment
Initial-preattachment phase (0-3 m)
- Indiscriminant; but show no preference
Attachment-in-the-making phase
- 3 to 4 months of age, is characterized by
preference for familiar figures.
Clear-cut-attachment phase
-Fear of strangers – 8 to 10 months
44. Theoretical Views of Attachment
• Behaviorists viewed attachment as learned
behavior based on caregiver’s attention
• Harry F. Harlow
– Inborn need for contact comfort
45. Theoretical Views of Attachment
• Konrad Lorenz
– Ethologist – attachment is an instinct
– Critical period
– Imprinting
• Ainsworth and Bowlby
– Attachment is instinctive in humans
46. Parenting Styles
• Diana Baumrind’s styles of parenting
– Connection between parental behavior and
development of instrumental competence
51. Physical Development
• Growth spurt
– last for 2-3 years. Grow 8-12 inches.
• Puberty
– Begins with appearance of secondary sex
characteristics
– Menarche
• Usually occurs between 11 and 14
52. Cognitive Development
• Piaget’s Formal Operations Stage
– Classification, logical thought, ability to
hypothesis
– Abstract thinking
– Able to deal with hypothetical situations
• Adolescent Egocentrism
– Imaginary Audience
– Personal Fable
53. • imaginary audience
– the belief that other people are as concerned
with our thoughts and behaviors as we are
• personal fable
– the belief that our feelings and ideas are
special and unique and that we are
invulnerable
55. Moral Reasoning
• Kohlberg’s Postconventional Level
– Many people do not reach this level
– Judgment is based on person’s own moral
standards
– Stage 5 – Laws are made to preserve order
but exceptions can occur
– Stage 6 – Adherence to universal ethical
principles
56. Sex Differences and Moral Reasoning
• Kohlberg’s theory shows higher levels of moral
reasoning in boys
• Carol Gilligan argues difference is result of
socialization
– Girls make judgments based on needs of
others
– Boys make judgments based on logic
57. Social and Emotional Development
• “Storm and stress” or calm and joyous?
• Independence is the challenge of adolescence
• Erikson’s Psychosocial Development
– Ego Identity versus Role Diffusion
• Adolescent Sexuality
– About 50% of American teens engage in
sexual intercourse
59. Physical Development
• Young adulthood
– Usually height of physical prowess
• Middle adulthood
– Gradual physical decline
– Women – menopause
• Late Adulthood
– Bones become brittle – greater risk for falls
– Slower response time
60.
61. Cognitive Development
• Creativity can be evidenced throughout lifetime
• Memory functioning declines with age
– Crystallized intelligence
– Fluid intelligence
• Tasks that require speed and visual spatial
skills decline
62. • crystallized intelligence
– one’s lifetime of intellectual achievement, as
shown largely through vocabulary and
knowledge of world affairs
• fluid intelligence
– mental flexibility as shown in learning rapidly
to solve new kinds of problems
63. Alzheimer’s Disease
• Progressive form of mental deterioration
– Affects 1% of people at age 60; 50% past
age 85
– It is a disease, not a normal progression
64. Social and Emotional Development
• Great variety based on cultural expectations
and individual behavior patterns
• Trends
– More optimistic than previous generation
– Grow psychologically healthier as they
advance to middle age
66. Erikson’s Psychosocial Development
• Young adulthood
– Intimacy versus Isolation
• Middle adulthood
– Generativity versus Stagnation
– Midlife transition – Midlife crisis
• Late adulthood
– Ego integrity versus Despair
Notes de l'éditeur
Truth or Fiction? Your heart started beating when you were only one-fifth of an inch long and weighed a fraction of an ounce. True.
Truth or Fiction? Prior to 6 months or so of age, “out of sight” is literally “out of mind.” True.
Go to 4ltrpress.cengage.com/psych for an interactive version of this Truth or Fiction feature.
Truth or Fiction? The architect Frank Lloyd Wright designed New York’s innovative spiral-shaped Guggenheim Museum when he was 65 years old. False.
Truth or Fiction? Alzheimer’s disease is a normal part of aging. False.
Go to 4ltrpress.cengage.com/psych for an interactive version of this Truth or Fiction feature.
LO1 Explain prenatal development and the role that sex hormones play
zygote – a fertilized ovum (egg cell)
germinal stage – the first stage of prenatal development, during which the dividing mass of cells has not become implanted in the uterine wall
amniotic sac – a sac within the uterus that contains the embryo or fetus
Truth or Fiction? Your heart started beating when you were only one-fifth of an inch long and weighed a fraction of an ounce. TRUE During the fourth week, a primitive heart begins to beat and pump blood—in an organism that is one-fifth of an inch long.
amniotic sac – a sac within the uterus that contains the embryo or fetus
placenta – a membrane that permits the exchange of nutrients and waste products between the mother and her developing child but does not allow the maternal and fetal bloodstreams to mix
umbilical cord – a tube between the mother and her developing child through which nutrients and waste product are conducted
LO2 Explain the physical, cognitive, moral, social, and emotional development of children.
reflex – a simple unlearned response to a stimulus
rooting – the turning of an infant’s head toward a touch, such as by the mother’s nipple
Figure 3.2 Motor Development
fixation time – the amount of time spent looking at a visual stimulus
Figure 3.3 Two-Month-Olds’ Preferences for Visual Stimuli.
schema – according to Piaget, a hypothetical mental structure that permits the classification and organization of new information
assimilation - according to Piaget, the inclusion of a new event into an existing schema
accommodation – according to Piaget, the modification of schemas so that information inconsistent with existing schemas can be integrated or understood
Truth or Fiction? Prior to 6 months or so of age, “out of sight” is literally “out of mind.” TRUE For most infants younger than 6 months, objects are not yet represented mentally.
sensorimotor stage – the first of Piaget’s stages of cognitive development, characterized by coordination of sensory information and motor activity, early exploration of the environment, and lack of language
object permanence – recognition that objects removed from sight still exist, as demonstrated in young children by continued pursuit
preoperational stage – the second of Piaget’s stages, characterized by illogical use of words and symbols, spotty logic, and egocentrism
egocentrism – according to Piaget, the assumption that others view the world as one does oneself
conservation – according to Piaget, recognition that basic properties of substances such as weight and mass remain the same when superficial features change
objective responsibility – according to Piaget, the assignment of blame according to the amount of damage done rather than the motives of the actor
Animism – The belief that inanimate objects move because of will or spirit
Artificialism – The belief that natural objects have been created by human beings
concrete operational stage – Piaget’s third stage, characterized by logical thought concerning tangible objects, conservation, and subjective morality
decentration – simultaneous focusing on more than one dimension of a problem, so that flexible, reversible thought becomes possible
subjective moral judgment – according to Piaget, moral judgment that is based on the motives of the perpetrator
Reversibility – Recognition that processes can be undone
zone of proximal development – Vygotsky’s term for the situation in which a child carries out tasks with the help of someone who is more skilled, frequently an adult who represents the culture in which the child develops.
scaffolding – Vygotsky’s term for temporary cognitive structures or methods of solving problems that help the child as he or she learns to function independently
preconventional level – according to Kohlberg, a period during which moral judgments are based largely on expectation of rewards or punishment
conventional level – according to Kohlberg, a period during which moral judgments largely reflect social conventions; a “law and order” approach to morality
These are the first three stages of Erikson’s theory representing the years of infancy through childhood
trust versus mistrust – Erikson’s first stage of psychosocial development, during which children do—or do not—come to trust that primary caregivers and the environment will meet their needs.
attachment – the enduring affectional tie that binds one person to another
contact comfort – a hypothesized primary drive to seek physical comfort through contact with another
ethologist – a scientist who studies the characteristic behavior patterns of species of animals
critical period – a period of time when an instinctive response can be elicited by a particular stimulus
imprinting – a process occurring during a critical period in the development of an organism, in which that organism responds to a stimulus in a manner that will afterward be difficult to modify
Instrumental competence is the ability to manipulate the environment to achieve one’s goals.
Four aspects of parental behavior - 1) Strictness; 2) Demands for child to achieve intellectual, emotional and social maturity; 3) Communication ability; 4) Warmth and involvement
authoritative parents – parents who are strict and warm; authoritative parents demand mature behavior but use reason rather than force in discipline
authoritarian parents – parents who are rigid in their rules and who demand obedience for the sake of obedience
permissive parents – parents who impose few, if any, rules and who do not supervise their children closely
uninvolved parents – parents who generally leave their children to themselves
Outcomes from parenting:
Authoritative – children have greatest self-reliance, self-esteem, social competence, and achievement motivation
Authoritarian – children are withdrawn or aggressive and usually do not do as well in school as children of authoritative parents
Permissive – children seem to be less mature and are often impulsive, moody, and aggressive
Uninvolved – children tend to be more likely to hang out with crowds who “party” a good deal and use drugs
Outcomes from parenting:
Authoritative – children have greatest self-reliance, self-esteem, social competence, and achievement motivation
Authoritarian – children are withdrawn or aggressive and usually do not do as well in school as children of authoritative parents
Outcomes from parenting:
Permissive – children seem to be less mature and are often impulsive, moody, and aggressive
Uninvolved – children tend to be more likely to hang out with crowds who “party” a good deal and use drugs
LO3 Explain the physical, cognitive, moral, social and emotional development of adolescents.
adolescence – the period of life bounded by puberty and the assumption of adult responsibilities
puberty – the period of physical development during which sexual reproduction first becomes possible
secondary sex characteristics – characteristics that distinguish the sexes, such as distribution of body hair and depth of voice, but that are not directly involved in reproduction
menarche – the beginning of menstruation
formal operational stage – Piaget’s fourth stage, characterized by abstract logical thought and deduction from principles
imaginary audience – an aspect of adolescent egocentrism; the belief that other people are as concerned with our thoughts and behaviors as we are
personal fable – another aspect of adolescent egocentrism; the belief that our feelings and ideas are special and unique and that we are invulnerable
postconventional level – according to Kohlberg, a period during which moral judgments are derived from moral principles and people look to themselves to set moral standards
ego identity – Erikson’s term for a firm sense of who one is and what one stands for
role diffusion – Erikson’s term for lack of clarity in one’s life roles (due to failure to develop ego identity)
LO4 Explain the physical, cognitive, moral, social, and emotional development of adults.
menopause – the cessation of menstruation
Figure 3.7 The Relentless March of Time
Go to 4ltrpress.cengage.com/psych for an interactive version of this figure.
Truth or Fiction? The architect Frank Lloyd Wright designed New York’s innovative spiral-shaped Guggenheim Museum when he was 65 years old. FALSE Frank Lloyd Wright was not 65; he was actually 89!
crystallized intelligence – one’s lifetime of intellectual achievement, as shown largely through vocabulary and knowledge of world affairs
fluid intelligence – mental flexibility as shown in learning rapidly to solve new kinds of problems
Truth or Fiction? Alzheimer’s disease is a normal part of aging. FALSE. Alzheimer’s disease is not a normal part of aging. Although connected with aging, it is a disease rather than a normal progression.
Alzheimer’s disease – a progressive form of mental deterioration characterized by loss of memory, language, problem solving, and other cognitive functions
dream – in this usage, Levinson’s term for the overriding drive of youth to become someone important, to leave one’s mark on history
intimacy versus isolation – Erikson’s life crisis of young adulthood, which is characterized by the task of developing abiding intimate relationships
generativity versus stagnation – Erikson’s term for the crisis of middle adulthood, characterized by the task of being productive and contributing to younger generations
midlife crisis – a crisis experienced by many people during the midlife transition when they realize that life may be more than halfway over and they reassess their achievements in terms of their dreams
ego integrity versus despair – Erikson’s term for the crisis of late adulthood, characterized by the task of maintaining one’s sense of identity despite physical deterioration