11. DNA
• Deoxyribonucleic Acid
• Polymer of deoxyribonucleotides
• Found in chromosomes, mitochondria and
chloroplasts
• Carries the genetic information
20. Nucleosome
• Nucleosome are the basic unit of chromatin
organization
• In eukaryotes DNA is associated with proteins
– (in prokaryotes the DNA is naked)
• Nucleosomes = basic beadlike unit of DNA packing
– Made of a segment of DNA wound around a
protein core that is composed of 2 copies of each
of 4 types of histones
28. Metaphase Chromosome
• Looped domains coil and fold, further
compacting chromatin
• Result in the characteristic metaphase
chromsome seen in karyotypes
30. DNA Replication Model
• In the late 1950s, three different mechanisms were proposed for the
replication of DNA
– Conservative model
• Both parental strands stay together after DNA replication
– Semiconservative model
• The daughter double-stranded DNA contains one parental and one
daughter strand following replication
– Dispersive model
• The daughter DNA are interspersed in both parental and new
strands following replication
32. Replication of DNA
• The process of copying a DNA molecule
• Each old DNA strand serves as a template
• Replication involves 3 main steps
1. Unwinding
2. Complementary base pairing
3. Joining
33. Prokaryotic replication
• Bacteria have a single circular loop of DNA
• Replication moves around the circular DNA
molecule in both directions
• The process begins at the origin of replication
and always occur in the 5 to 3
• Replication stop when the 2 DNA polymerases
meet at a termination region
• 40 min to replicate
35. Eukaryotic DNA Replication
• DNA replication begins at numerous points
along linear chromosome
• Replication bubbles spread bi directionally
until they meet
• Replication fork v shape formed during dna
replication
36. Starts at origin
Initiator proteins identify specific base sequences on DNA
called sites of origin
Prokaryotes – single origin site
Eukaryotes – multiple sites of origin
Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
39. Semi-discontinuous replication
Anti parallel strands replicated simultaneously
Leading strand synthesis continuously in 5’– 3’
Lagging strand synthesis in fragments in 5’-3’
41. Core proteins at the replication fork
Topoisomerases
Helicases
Primase
Single strand
binding proteins
DNA polymerase
DNA ligase
- Prevents torsion by DNA breaks
- separates 2 strands
- RNA primer synthesis
- prevent reannealing
of single strands
- synthesis of new strand
- seals nick via phosphodiester linkage
46. Messenger RNA
• mRNA contains the genetic information from DNA
(Template for protein synthesis).
• Synthesized from its 5’ to 3’ end
• Single-stranded
• Generally mRNAs are linear (although some
prokaryotic RNA viruses are circular and act as
mRNAs)
53. Proteins
• Large molecules
• Made up of chains of amino acids
• Are found in every cell in the body
• Are involved in most of the body’s functions
and life processes
• The sequence of amino acids is determined by
DNA
56. Peptide Bonds Link Amino Acids
• Form when the acid group (COOH) of one
amino acid joins with the amine group (NH2)
of a second amino acid
• Formed through condensation
• Broken through hydrolysis
59. Protein Structure
Polypeptides having a three dimensional structure.
Primary–sequence of amino acids constituting the
polypeptide chain
Secondary–local organization into secondary structures such
as helices and sheets
Tertiary –three dimensional arrangements of the amino acids
as they react to one another due to the polarity and resulting
interactions between their side chains
Quaternary–number and relative positions of the protein
subunits
64. Genes
• Genes=units of genetic information (hereditary information)
• Order of nucleotides make up the genetic code
• Genes can contain the information for one polypeptide
• Genes can also regulate how other genes are expressed
65. Gene
• The gene has three regions, each with a
function in transcription:
a. promoter
b. RNA-coding sequence
c. terminator
69. Transcription Process
• Initiation - promoter recognition by RNA
polymerase
• Elongation - synthesis of RNA
• Termination - end of elongation cycle and
dissociation of RNA and RNA polymerase
from DNA
72. Termination of transcription
Termination can be rho-independent or rho-
dependent (rho is a protein termination factor)
Most termination is rho-independent
78. Ribosome
• made of proteins and rRNA
• each has a large and small subunit
• each has three binding sites for tRNA on its
surface
• components of ribosomes are made in the
nucleus and exported to the cytoplasm where
they join to form one functional unit
79. Ribosome Binding Sites
• A site (aminoacyl site)
– Holds tRNA carrying next amino acid
• P site (peptidyl-tRNA site)
– holds tRNA carrying growing polypeptide chain
• E site (exit site)
– uncharged tRNA leaves ribosome from exit site
82. Aminoacyl tRNA Synthetases
• Enzymes which bond specific amino acids to their
particular tRNAs.
• There are 20 different aminoacyl tRNA
synthetases, one for each amino acid.
• Covalent linkage through an ester bond
• tRNA linked to amino acid is charged tRNA.
83. Translation has 3 Steps, Each Requiring
Different Supporting Proteins
• Initiation
– Requires Initiation Factors
• Elongation
– Requires Elongation Factors
• Termination
– Requires Termination Factor
84. Initiation
The initiation process involves first
joining the mRNA, the initiator
methionine-tRNA, and the small
ribosomal subunit. Several “initiation
factors”--additional proteins--are also
involved. The large ribosomal subunit
then joins the complex.
86. Initiation:
1. Binding of initiation factors
to small subunit.
2. Binding of first tRNA and
mRNA to small subunit.
3. Binding of large subunit.
87. Elongation:
1. Binding of next tRNA
using EFs at
A site.
2. Peptide Bond
formation between 2
amino acids.
3. Translocation of
ribosome.
E P A
E PA
E PA
E PA
E PA
91. Termination
• When the ribosome reaches
a stop codon, proteins
called “release factors”
bind, and cause the
ribosome, the mRNA, and
the new polypeptide to
separate. The new
polypeptide is completed.