1. Nonprofits Respond as Intergovernmental Organizations Post Katrina
Introduction
A basic principle of government is to provide services for its citizens following
major disasters. The nature of disasters requires an intergovernmental approach to
disaster management. Furthermore, local nongovernmental organizations, including
nonprofits, churches, and citizen organizations, offer critical services in the aftermath of a
disaster.
The first half of this paper begins by outlining the role of intergovernmental
agencies in disaster response and includes a discussion of how nonprofits fit into disaster
response. Next it discusses three major public administration theories that are applicable
to public administrators overseeing disaster response. The rest of the paper discusses the
role of intergovernmental organizations and nongovernmental organizations in the
aftermath of Hurricane Katrina. Specifically, it focuses on the relationship among the
Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), the Red Cross, and local nonprofits
involved in relief efforts of Katrina.
Disaster Management is Intergovernmental Management
Disasters require an intergovernmental approach for three major reasons: they
cross state, local, and municipal government boarders; they require a response by
multiple government agencies; and they require a collaborative response among the
government and nonprofit sectors. First, natural and human disasters are often large and
impact multiple cities, counties, and states. For example, hurricanes do not choose to
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2. damage a single municipality, county, or state; they threaten multiple governments. Such
events require a response by intergovernmental agencies.
Secondly, disasters require a response by multiple government agencies because
they effect citizens, businesses, and organizations that require distinct government
services. Since the New Deal, the United States has designed its agencies to be
functionally specialized. 1 In a disaster, a business, homeowner, and homeless person
may all require a specialized government response, and often a single player requires a
response from multiple agencies. For example, a business owner might get rescued by
the Coast Guard, seek relief in a shelter setup by FEMA, and receive a special disaster
loan from the Small Business Administration for recovery.
Lastly, disasters require a response from the government and the nonprofit sector.
The past generation has seen government become more privatized and decentralized. 2
Today nonprofits provide public services through government contracts. During a
disaster these services are often in higher need and require additional response from the
nonprofit sector. For example, following a natural disaster such as a tornado people loose
their homes and may require services from a shelter operated by a local nonprofit.
Furthermore, local nonprofits often expand their services immediately after a disaster.
Religious organizations often open their doors to provide shelter in their communities
even if they did not offer them in the first place.
Nonprofits are uniquely capable of offering community access during a disaster
response. Nonprofits usually work in local communities to solve local social problems
1
Kettl, Donald. The Transformation of Governance: Globalization, Devolution, and the
Role of Government. Public Administration Review, Vol. 60, No. 6, pp. 488-497. 2000.
2
Feiock, Richard and Hee Soun Jang. Nonprofits as Local Government Service
Contractors. Public Administration Review, Vol. __, No. __, pp 668-680. 2009.
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3. that the government does not adequately solve. 3 In order to address local problems they
naturally build local relationships by gaining community access. After a disaster
nonprofits use their community access to distribute and gain knowledge, assess damages,
and create partnerships to solve problems. For example, if a pandemic hits a vulnerable
community, a local nonprofit could have access to valuable information such as the needs
of the senior citizens and the nonprofit could have relationships with senior citizen
centers that need vaccines or support. Indeed, nonprofits are uniquely capable of
understanding the needs of a community that can go overlooked by government agencies.
Ultimately disasters are complex in their nature and cross government agencies as well as
nonprofits organizations. They require a collaborative response among many
government agencies and partnerships with local nonprofits are beneficial.
Applications for Public Administration Theory
Public administration theory offers several strategies for disaster management
among intergovernmental agencies and nonprofit organizations. This section covers
three applicable approaches for public managers to follow during disaster management.
First, adaptive theory offers insight for public managers to allocate resources in disaster
management. 4 Managing a disaster requires public administrators to adopt new strategies
for changing environments. Adaptive theory is based on the idea that public actors
initiate new organizational behavior to adapt to a changing environment. Administrators
from all levels and agencies of government go through rapid changes in their
3
Desai, Uday and Keith Snavely. Mapping Local Government-Nongovernmental
Organization Interactions: A Conceptual Framework. Journal of Public Adminstration
Research and Theory. Vol. 11, No. 2, pp 245-263. 2001.
4
Comfort, Louise. Managing Intergovernmental Response to Terrorism and Other
Extreme Events. Publius, Vol. 32, No. 4, pp 29-49. 2002.
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4. environment during a disaster and must be able to adapt new approaches that solve
dynamic problems.
Second, disasters offer uncertainty times for key players in governmental agencies
and nonprofit organizations, and decision making theory offers valuable management
skills during uncertainty. Decision making theory suggests that during uncertain events
public managers should look outward to their environments for information to base plans,
decisions, and courses of action. 5 During disasters, quick decisions have to be made, and
rational-decisions based on alternative strategies are time consuming. Rather managers
should observe the environment and make decisions based on their experience and
training for more effective management. Furthermore, decisions based on environmental
reactions of experience and training is more likely to produce collaborative results among
different agencies.
Finally, public managers should apply contextual theories for access to
information and communication systems. 6 Managers should integrate technology,
humans, and local organizations into their management approach. In some events
technology may allow for easy access to information. For example, in New York City on
9/11 communication was not completely destroyed so managers could use technological
means of communication. After major storms, technology may become useless and
managers should seek out their context, including humans and local organizations, for
information. It has been argues that disasters by definition are a time with no previous
management plans or standard operating procedures. This, however, is not the case;
5
ibid
6
ibid
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5. public managers should practice fundamental public administration theory, gather
information, and remain flexible in their approaches to disasters.
Interorganizational Management of Katrina
In the aftermath of Katrina, the federal government’s disaster management
agency, FEMA, partnered with more than 400 volunteer organizations during the disaster
response to Katrina. 7 During the aftermath, FEMA relied “on the experience and speed
of the volunteer agencies to provide immediate shelter and food assistance.” Six weeks
after Hurricane Katrina there were more than 26,000 people living in emergency shelters
throughout Louisiana. The Red Cross sheltered 14,000 people, 6,000 were sheltered by
faith-based organizations, and 6,000 were seeking refuge in local nonprofit organizations,
private homes, or local parish governments. 8 Local governments, organizations, and
individuals were responsible for providing basic disaster response to half of all of
Louisiana’s refuges.
FEMA’s response to Katrina included the coordination, or lack thereof, among
thousands of federal, state, and local government agencies and many more
nongovernmental organizations. According to FEMA’s director at the time, David
Paulison, FEMA saw their “capabilities stretched further than at any time in FEMA's 30-
7
FEMA. “Volunteer Agencies Essential to Hurricane Response: Help for Louisiana
Communities Came from Across the Nation and World.”
<http://www.fema.gov/news/newsrelease.fema?id=24161>
8
Pipa, Tony. Weathering the Storm: The Role of Nonprofits in the Hurricane Katrina
Relief Effort. Nonprofit Sector Research Fund Working Paper Series. The Aspen
Institute. 2006.
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6. year history.” 9 When a Federal Emergency is declared, FEMA becomes the agency
responsible for managing the disaster. However, FEMA’s is congressionally bound to
exactly what and how it manages.
The National Response Plan (NRP) and the Emergency Management Assistance
Compact (EMAC) provide the structure for federal and state disaster response,
respectively10. Under the NRP’s Emergency Support Function #6 (ESF#6), FEMA
designates the Red Cross as the federal government agency to provide “mass care” to
citizens during a disaster by giving emergency first aid, shelter, housing, and human
services to those in need. 11
In the aftermath of Katrina, ESF#6 became a controversial debate between FEMA
and the Red Cross. 12 According to a Homeland Security performance review, FEMA
interpreted ESF#6 to mean that the Red Cross was responsible for coordinating “mass
care” among the state and local governments and organizations. However, the Red Cross
suggested that it meant that the Red Cross was responsible the “mass care” by providing
its own services, not by coordinating the services of other organizations.
The uncertainty of management between FEMA and the Red Cross created
repercussions of uncertainty throughout local governments and organizations. Many of
the local organizations that ended up providing a bulk of the relief had never been trained
9
FEMA. Hurricane Katrina, One-Year Later.
http://www.fema.gov/news/newsrelease.fema?id=29108. August 2006. 10/5/2009.
10
U.S. Department of Homeland Security.
http://www.dhs.gov/xabout/laws/gc_1214592333605.shtm. 10/5/2009.
11
U.S. Department of Homeland Security: Office of Inspector General. A Preformance
Review of FEMA’s Disaster Management Activities in Response to Hurricane Katrina.
2006.
12
ibid
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7. in emergency disaster response. Furthermore, they did not know which government
agency to go for with information, advice, or needs.
Nonprofits Offer Relief
Many community nonprofits in the path of Katrina underwent two major changes
for the first time in their organization’s history. First they were victims themselves. A
survey conducted by the Mississippi Center for Nonprofits estimated that 67% of coastal
nonprofits lost staff and 77% of local nonprofits lost buildings or other assets. 13 Second,
for the first time in their history many local nonprofits became primary responders to a
disaster. Either of these taken alone is likely to wipe out a nonprofit; however, the
nonprofits became critical to the emergency response of Katrina.
Disaster management agencies follow four distinct phases: rescue, relief,
recovery, and rebuilding. Gulf Coast nonprofits have been critical in all four phases, but
they were especially active during the relief period. 14 Following the storm they surveyed
their local communities and found thousands without basic shelter, food, and water. The
Louisiana Department of Social Services reported that before the storm less than fifteen
organizations were providing shelter; two weeks after the storm nearly 200 organizations
were housing approximately 12,000 evacuees. 15
The disaster response to Hurricane Katrina highlights the role of
intergovernmental relations. The disputes between FEMA and the Red Cross highlight
13
Mississippi’s Center for Nonprofits. “Katrina’s Impact on the Service Sector in
Mississippi.” www.independentsector.org/relief/index.html. 10/8/2009
14
Pipa, Tony. Weathering the Storm: The Role of Nonprofits in the Hurricane Katrina
Relief Effort. Nonprofit Sector Research Fund Working Paper Series. The Aspen
Institute. 2006.
15
Lampkin, Linda and Jennifer Claire Auer. Open and Operating: An Assessment of
Nonprofit Health and Human Services in Louisiana after Hurricanes Katrina and Rita.
The Urban Institute. 2006. http://www.urban.org/publications/900916.html. 10/6/2009.
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8. the need for an organized and cohesive role for federal agencies during a disaster
response. The role of local nonprofits suggests that community organizations play an
active role in the disaster response process.
Conclusion
Major disasters cross government boarders and require the response of multiple
government agencies. These agencies must respond by working together to offer services
in collaboration with other agencies and local partners. Nonprofit organizations are
recognized partners during the disaster response process that offer community access and
information for governmental agencies. Public administration theory offers insight into
sound management practices for public organizations that respond to disasters.
The response to Hurricane Katrina by federal, state, and local agencies highlights
the importance of sound management, partnerships and collaboration among various
government agencies and nonprofit organizations. Ultimately, government agencies must
account for intergovernmental relations and view nonprofits as partners in disaster
response.
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