Barbour, M. K. (2019, May). The landscape of K-12 online learning: Exploring what is known. An invited webinar by American Center For The Study Of Distance Education.

1. Michael K. Barbour
Touro University California

3. Gemin, B., Pape, L., Vashaw, L., & Watson, J. (2015). Keeping pace with K-12 online & blended learning: An
annual review of policy and practice. Evergreen, CO: Evergreen Education Group.

4. Gemin, B., & Pape, L. (2016). Keeping pace with K-12 online learning: An annual review of policy and practice.
Evergreen, CO: Evergreen Education Group.

5. Watson, J., Murin, A., Vashaw, L., Gemin, B., & Rapp, C. (2012). Keeping pace with K-12 online & blended
learning: An annual review of policy and practice. Durango, CO: Evergreen Education Group.

6.  K-12 online learning: a general term to
describe the field
 Virtual school: supplemental form of K-12
online learning
 Cyber school: a full-time form of K-12
online learning
K-12 blended learning: ???

7. Digital Learning Collaborative. (2019). Snapshot 2019: A review of K-12 online, blended, and digital learning.
Durango, CO: Evergreen Education Group.

8. Digital Learning Collaborative. (2019). Snapshot 2019: A review of K-12 online, blended, and digital learning.
Durango, CO: Evergreen Education Group.

9. Digital Learning Collaborative. (2019). Snapshot 2019: A review of K-12 online, blended, and digital learning.
Durango, CO: Evergreen Education Group.

10. • “based upon the personal experiences of
those involved in the practice of virtual
schooling” (Cavanaugh et al., 2009)
• “a paucity of research exists when
examining high school students enrolled in
virtual schools, and the research base is
smaller still when the population of
students is further narrowed to the
elementary grades” (Rice, 2006)

11. 1
3 3 4 3
7 6 6
9
11
5
14
12
16
22
33
25
20
23
31
40
27
35
1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
NumberofArticles
Year
Articles per Year

12.  Top
journal
published
7% of the
total
articles.
 132
journals
published
four or
fewer
articles.
 102
journals
published
one
article.
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Journal of Online Learning Research
American Journal of Distance Education
International Journal of E-Learning & Distance…
Journal of Open Flexible and Distance Learning*
Journal of Technology and Teacher Education
TechTrends
The Morning Watch
Distance Learning
International Review of Research in Open and…
Quarterly Review of Distance Education
NUMBER OF ARTICLES
JOURNALS Top 10 Journals

13. • Author Analysis—384 distinct authors; ranked by
number of articles and position of authorship.
• Top 11 authors: Michael Barbour (57), Cathy
Cavanaugh (19), Ken Stevens (18) Elizabeth Murphy
(16), Charles Graham (15), Margaret Roblyer (14),
Jered Borup (14), Leanna Archambault (12), Diana
Greer (11), Dennis Beck (10), Niki Davis (10)
• Of note: 276 authors (just under 75% of the authors)
published only one article; more than half of these
articles were published from 2011 though 2016,
perhaps indicating a growth in interest in K-12
online learning and newer scholars.

14. • “indicative of the foundational descriptive
work that often precedes experimentation
in any scientific field. In other words, it is
important to know how students in virtual
school engage in their learning in this
environment prior to conducting any
rigorous examination of virtual schooling.”
(Cavanaugh et al., 2009)

15. 1. Comparisons of student performance based upon
delivery model (i.e., classroom vs. online)
2. Studies examining the qualities and
characteristics of the teaching/learning
experience
 characteristics of
 supports provided to
 issues related to isolation of online learners
(Rice, 2006)
1 Effectiveness of virtual schooling
2 Student readiness and retention issues
(Cavanaugh et al., 2009)

17. Bigbie &
McCarroll (2000)
over half of students who completed FLVS courses
scored an A in their course & only 7% received a
failing grade
Barker & Wendel
(2001)
students in the six virtual schools in three different
provinces performed no worse than the students from
the three conventional schools
Cavanaugh et al.
(2005)
FLVS students performed better on a non-mandatory
assessment tool than students from the traditional
classroom
McLeod et al.
(2005)
FLVS students performed better on an algebraic
assessment than their classroom counterparts
Barbour &
Mulcahy (2008,
2009)
little difference in the overall performance of students
based upon delivery model

19. Ballas & Belyk
(2000)
participation rate in the assessment among
virtual students ranged from 65% to 75%
compared to 90% to 96% for the classroom-
based students
Bigbie &
McCarroll (2000)
between 25% and 50% of students had dropped
out of their FLVS courses over the previous two-
year period
Cavanaugh et al.
(2005)
speculated that the virtual school students who
did take the assessment may have been more
academically motivated and naturally higher
achieving students
McLeod et al.
(2005)
results of the student performance were due to
the high dropout rate in virtual school courses

20. Haughey &
Muirhead (1999)
preferred characteristics include the highly motivated,
self-directed, self-disciplined, independent learner who
could read and write well, and who also had a strong
interest in or ability with technology
Roblyer & Elbaum
(2000)
only students with a high need to control and structure
their own learning may choose distance formats freely
Clark et al. (2002) IVHS students were highly motivated, high achieving,
self-directed and/or who liked to work independently
Mills (2003) typical online student was an A or B student
Watkins (2005) 45% of the students who participated in e-learning
opportunities in Michigan were either advanced
placement or academically advanced students

26. • “K12 Inc. virtual schools enroll approximately the same
percentages of black students but substantially more white
students and fewer Hispanic students relative to public schools
in the states in which the company operates”
• “39.9% of K12 students qualify for free or reduced lunch,
compared with 47.2% for the same-state comparison group.”
• “K12 virtual schools enroll a slightly smaller proportion of
students with disabilities than schools in their states and in the
nation as a whole (9.4% for K12 schools, 11.5% for same-state
comparisons, and 13.1% in the nation).”
• “Students classified as English language learners are
significantly under-represented in K12 schools; on average the
K12 schools enroll 0.3% ELL students compared with 13.8% in
the same-state comparison group and 9.6% in the nation.”
Miron, G. & Urschel, J. (2012). Understanding and improving full-time virtual schools. Denver, CO: National
Education Policy Center.

27. “AYP is not a reliable measure of school
performance…. There is an emerging
consensus to scrap AYP and replace it with a
better system that measures academic
progress and growth. K12 has been
measuring student academic growth on
behalf of its partner schools, and the results
are strong with academic gains above the
national average.”
Jeff Kwitowski - K12, Inc. Vice President of Public Affairs

31. Davis (2007)

32. Jered Borup, George Mason University

33. Borup (2015)

34. Davis (2007)
Ferdig, Cavanaugh, DiPietro, Black and Dawson (2009)
Davis’ roles Davis’ responsibilities Ferdig et al.’s roles Ferdig et al.’ responsibilities
Designer Design instructional materials.
Works in team with teachers
and a virtual school to construct
the online course, etc.
Instructional
Designer
The creator of the online course in
accordance with content standards using
effective strategies for the learners and the
content
Teacher Presents activities, manages
pacing, rigor, etc.. Interacts
with students and their
facilitators. Undertakes
assessment, grading, etc.
Teachers The educator with primary responsibility
for student instruction within an online
course including interaction with students
and assigning course grades
Facilitator Local mentor and advocate for
students(s). Proctors & records
grades, etc.
Online Facilitator The person who supports students in a
virtual school programme. The facilitator
may interact with students online or may
facilitate at the physical site where students
access their online course.
Local Key Contact The professional who assists students in
registering and otherwise accessing virtual
courses
Mentor The academic tutor or course assistant for
students
Technology
Coordinator
The person who facilitates technical
support for educators and students
Guidance
Counselor
The academic advisor for students
Administrator The instructional leader of the virtual
school

35. • at this stage of the development of the field, the continued
focus of research on media comparison studies does little to
further our understanding of K-12 online learning
o due to the skewed samples found in most of the online learning
samples
o because of the inherent difficulties in comparing student
performance based solely on method of delivery without controlling
for any additional factors
• beyond this body of comparative research, much of the research
has been qualitative in nature
o which can be quite useful for understanding K-12 online learning in a
specific setting, but by definition are not generalizable to other
jurisdictions

36. • a significant portion of the body of research suffers from
issue of over reaching (e.g., interviewing a group of hand
picked teachers or developers and using their opinions to
generate “best practices”)
 these shortcomings in the current body of research
provide scholars in the field with a specific path forward

38. Associate Professor of Instructional Design
Touro University California
mkbarbour@gmail.com
http://www.michaelbarbour.com
http://virtualschooling.wordpress.com