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EMBRIOLOGIA
&
CICLO CELULAR
JUAN CARLOS MUNEVAR
APPLICATIONS OF
MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS
A Characteristic of Living things
Growth, Division, Reproduction
New Terms:
• Development – progress through lifetime
• Growth – increase in size, volume, mass
• Morphogenesis – development of shapes
• Epigenesis – development from a formless zygote
• Differentiation – cells become different from each
other
• Determination – fate of cells is set (before
differentiation), usually at gene control level
• Induction – One tissue or substance causes
determination, then differentiation, of other cells
APOPTOSIS
EVOLTUION OF EMBRYOS
•Requires multicellularity
•Only becomes embryology when
cells are differentiated.
•Follows a common pattern in the
Animal Kingdom
Stages in Embryology
Animal Examples
The Egg
• Large, sessile gamete
• Yolk – the phospholipid lecithin
• Haploid nucleus (notice timing for humans
and Ascaris)
• Oolemma – two membranes plus jelly layer
• Jelly layer -- Hyaluronic Acid and Proteins
• Cortical granules – vesicles in cortex
The Sperm
• Small, motile gamete
• Flagellated in animals and lower plants
• Haploid nucleus
• Acrosome – specialized cytoplasmic vesicle
for digesting jelly layer (hyaluronidase and
proteases) and for attaching to Oolemma
(bindin)
Fertilization
• Sperm activated by egg hormones
(gynagamones)
• Formation of Acrosomal Process
(microfilaments)
• Release of hyaluronidase and proteases
• Bindin attach to bindin recognition site on
oolemma
Egg Activation
• Depolarization of membrane
• Evacuation of cortical granules
• Elevation of vitelline membrane (separation
of vitelline membrane from egg cell
membrane in oolemma)
• Blocking of all other bindin sites
• Activation of metabolism in cytoplasm
• Completion of meiosis in some organisms
Early cleavage
• First cleavage – Two-cell stage
• Second cleavage – Four-cell stage
• Additional cleavages in ball shape
• Morula
• Blastula – first morphogenetic movements
(cells migrate to form hollow ball)
• Blastocoel (space) and Protoderm (tissue)
Gastrulation
• Second Morphogenetic step (first is
formation of the blastula).
• Tissues MOVE relative to each other and
relative to their position in the embryo!
• Different cells move different amounts and
change shape by different amounts.
• Protein gradients in embryo control this.
• HOX and Homeobox genes in animal
kingdom
Morphogenesis
Example of invagination
Cells change shape
Coordinated by position
Role of Cytoskeleton
Early Cleavage Differences
• Protostomes
– Spiral cleavage
– Determinate
– Mosaic pattern
– Blastopore  mouth
– Arthropods, mollusks,
annelids
• Deuterostomes
– Radial cleavage
– Indeterminate
– Regulated
development
– Blastopore  anus
– Echinoderms,
chordates
Blastula Differences
• Small eggs – symmetrical blastula
(Echinoderms and Mammals)
• Large eggs – asymmetrical blastula
(Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds)
• Animal Pole – active side  ectoderm
• Vegetal Pole – inactive  endoderm
Gastrulation in Frog
• Morphogenesis: invagination
• Epiboly and Involution for asymmetrical
eggs
• Triploblastic – three tissue layers
– Ectoderm – outer skin, CNS in vertebrates
– Endoderm – lining of the gut
– Mesoderm – inner organs and tissues
– Coelom – body space in proto- and
Deuterostomes.
Notocord in Chordates
• First tissue to fully differentiate
• Forms in mid-dorsal mesoderm
(chordamesoderm)
• Induces formation of neural tube and cranial
space in nearby ectoderm (dorsal side)
• Replaced by spinal column (cartilage and
bone from mesoderm) in vertebrates
Differentiation of Mesoderm
• Mid-dorsal – chordamesoderm
• Dorsal – somites – segmented parts of body
• Intermediate – thin layer, contributes to kidney
and/or testicular ducts (labeled “nephrotome” in
previous slide)
• Lateral Plate – two sheets join at mid-ventral line
– Somatic – body side
– Splanchnic – surroundings of gut
– Coelom – body space between two layers of mesoderm
Pattern formation
• Studied first in Drosophila
• HOX and Homeobox genes found
throughout animal kingdom
• Frequent repeated inductions followed by
determination, then differentiation
• Stimulates morphogenesis, part of
development
Chick
• 3-D slide from dorsal side
• Note:
– Somites,
– Neural tube and cranial space
– Notocord
• Compare to Frog slices
CLONING
• Dedifferentiation of carrot cells.
• Demonstration that frog cells are not
terminally differentiated.
• More difficult in mammals!!
Summary
• Development is part of a life cycle
• Involves mitosis for nuclear division
• Changes in control of DNA cause
differentiation (different proteins made in
different concentrations)
• Genes and development steps are regulated
by other genes throughout life
LIFE CYCLES
Reproduction
• To “produce again”
• Life cycle includes both diploid and haploid
phases
• You, as an individual, are the diploid phase
of a life cycle
• Emphasis on phases leads to classification
of life cycles
Generalized Life Cycle
Diploid phase
Haploid phase
meiosisFertilization/symgamy
zygote
gametes
Diploid adult??
Haploid adult??
Representative Examples
• Chlamydomonas – haplontic (haploid dominant)
life cycle, single celled
• Ulothrix – haplontic life cycle, filamentous
(colony?)
• Ulva – diplohaplontic life cycle, multicellular in
both haploid and diploid phases, phases equal.
• Fern – diplontic (diploid dominant) life cycle
• Animal Kingdom – extreme diplontic life cycle;
learn Echinoderm, Ascaris, human
Haploid Phase
Diploid Phase
HAPLONTIC STYLE OF LIFE CYCLE
Chlamydomonas
• Protist
• Chloroplast
• Haplontic life cycle (Haploid dominant)
• No mitosis in diploid phase of cycle
• Represents very early Eukaryotic life cycles
Chlamydomonas
ULOTHRIX
• Haplontic life cycle
• “Multicellular” in haploid phase (colonial?)
• Both growth and asexual reproduction by
mitosis in haploid phase.
• Diploid phase (resting spore) can only
perform meiosis (no mitosis in diploid
phase)
New Terms
• Gametophyte – the gamete-producing plant.
This describes a multicellular HAPLOID
phase in plant life cycles. This plant
produces gametes by MITOSIS
(chromosome number stays the same!).
• Spore – a haploid cell that will divide by
mitosis (usually to produce a gametophyte).
More New Terms
• Gametangium – in Ulothrix and many
similar algae, it is a specialized cell that
produces gametes by mitosis.
• Sporangium, or zoosporangium – a
specialized cell that produces spores
(zoospores) by mitosis.
• Zoospore – a spore that is flagellated.
Diploid phase
Resting spore only
Haploid phase
Includes spores, a multicellular
filament (gametophyte), and gametes
Ulothrix Haplontic style life cycle
Alternation of generations
• Ulva is our example
• Introduction of mitosis in the diploid
phase!
• Eons of evolutionary time to develop
• Loss of asexual reproduction in the haploid
phase for some species.
• Mitosis still in haploid phase for growth and
production of gametes.
New Terms
• Sporophyte – the spore producing plant.
This is the multicellular DIPLOID plant. It
produces spores by MEIOSIS (chromosome
number reduced from diploid to haploid).
• Sporangium – specialized cells or ORGAN
(multicellular structure) that produces
spores by meiosis. Located on the
sporophyte.
Emphasis of Diploid Phase
• Ferns, Conifers, Flowering Plants
• Gametophyte becomes less important in the
life cycle (smaller than sporophyte and with
a shorter lifetime).
• Sporophyte develops complex tissues and
organs.
New Terms for Fern
• Thalus – name for the gametophyte (n).
• Archegonium – gametophyte (haploid)
organ that produces eggs by mitosis.
• Antheridium – gametophyte (haploid) organ
that produces sperm by mitosis.
• Sorus – structure on underside of
sporophyte leaf that contains many
sporangia (diploid) that produce spores by
meiosis.
Evolutionary Trends
• Shift in emphasis from haploid dominant to
diploid dominant life cycles.
• Shift from haploid to diploid organisms.
• Single to multicellular; increased tissue
differentiation; longer lives
• Emphasis on mitosis for reproduction in haploid
phase (asexual) to use of it for growth, then
growth in diploid phase
• Meiosis/fertilization ONCE per life cycle (sexual
reproduction)
SUMMARY
• Switch in emphasis from dominant haploid
to dominant diploid phases.
• Development of multicellularity, then of
tissue differentiation.
• Role of MITOSIS undergoes significant
change.
• Roles of meiosis and fertilization do NOT
change.

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Embryology

  • 3. A Characteristic of Living things Growth, Division, Reproduction
  • 4. New Terms: • Development – progress through lifetime • Growth – increase in size, volume, mass • Morphogenesis – development of shapes • Epigenesis – development from a formless zygote • Differentiation – cells become different from each other • Determination – fate of cells is set (before differentiation), usually at gene control level • Induction – One tissue or substance causes determination, then differentiation, of other cells
  • 6. EVOLTUION OF EMBRYOS •Requires multicellularity •Only becomes embryology when cells are differentiated. •Follows a common pattern in the Animal Kingdom
  • 7.
  • 9. The Egg • Large, sessile gamete • Yolk – the phospholipid lecithin • Haploid nucleus (notice timing for humans and Ascaris) • Oolemma – two membranes plus jelly layer • Jelly layer -- Hyaluronic Acid and Proteins • Cortical granules – vesicles in cortex
  • 10.
  • 11. The Sperm • Small, motile gamete • Flagellated in animals and lower plants • Haploid nucleus • Acrosome – specialized cytoplasmic vesicle for digesting jelly layer (hyaluronidase and proteases) and for attaching to Oolemma (bindin)
  • 12. Fertilization • Sperm activated by egg hormones (gynagamones) • Formation of Acrosomal Process (microfilaments) • Release of hyaluronidase and proteases • Bindin attach to bindin recognition site on oolemma
  • 13.
  • 14.
  • 15.
  • 16.
  • 17. Egg Activation • Depolarization of membrane • Evacuation of cortical granules • Elevation of vitelline membrane (separation of vitelline membrane from egg cell membrane in oolemma) • Blocking of all other bindin sites • Activation of metabolism in cytoplasm • Completion of meiosis in some organisms
  • 18.
  • 19. Early cleavage • First cleavage – Two-cell stage • Second cleavage – Four-cell stage • Additional cleavages in ball shape • Morula • Blastula – first morphogenetic movements (cells migrate to form hollow ball) • Blastocoel (space) and Protoderm (tissue)
  • 20.
  • 21.
  • 22.
  • 23.
  • 24.
  • 25.
  • 26. Gastrulation • Second Morphogenetic step (first is formation of the blastula). • Tissues MOVE relative to each other and relative to their position in the embryo! • Different cells move different amounts and change shape by different amounts. • Protein gradients in embryo control this. • HOX and Homeobox genes in animal kingdom
  • 27.
  • 28. Morphogenesis Example of invagination Cells change shape Coordinated by position Role of Cytoskeleton
  • 29.
  • 30.
  • 31.
  • 32.
  • 33.
  • 34.
  • 35.
  • 36.
  • 37.
  • 38.
  • 39. Early Cleavage Differences • Protostomes – Spiral cleavage – Determinate – Mosaic pattern – Blastopore  mouth – Arthropods, mollusks, annelids • Deuterostomes – Radial cleavage – Indeterminate – Regulated development – Blastopore  anus – Echinoderms, chordates
  • 40. Blastula Differences • Small eggs – symmetrical blastula (Echinoderms and Mammals) • Large eggs – asymmetrical blastula (Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds) • Animal Pole – active side  ectoderm • Vegetal Pole – inactive  endoderm
  • 41. Gastrulation in Frog • Morphogenesis: invagination • Epiboly and Involution for asymmetrical eggs • Triploblastic – three tissue layers – Ectoderm – outer skin, CNS in vertebrates – Endoderm – lining of the gut – Mesoderm – inner organs and tissues – Coelom – body space in proto- and Deuterostomes.
  • 42.
  • 43.
  • 44.
  • 45. Notocord in Chordates • First tissue to fully differentiate • Forms in mid-dorsal mesoderm (chordamesoderm) • Induces formation of neural tube and cranial space in nearby ectoderm (dorsal side) • Replaced by spinal column (cartilage and bone from mesoderm) in vertebrates
  • 46.
  • 47.
  • 48.
  • 49.
  • 50.
  • 51. Differentiation of Mesoderm • Mid-dorsal – chordamesoderm • Dorsal – somites – segmented parts of body • Intermediate – thin layer, contributes to kidney and/or testicular ducts (labeled “nephrotome” in previous slide) • Lateral Plate – two sheets join at mid-ventral line – Somatic – body side – Splanchnic – surroundings of gut – Coelom – body space between two layers of mesoderm
  • 52.
  • 53. Pattern formation • Studied first in Drosophila • HOX and Homeobox genes found throughout animal kingdom • Frequent repeated inductions followed by determination, then differentiation • Stimulates morphogenesis, part of development
  • 54.
  • 55.
  • 56. Chick • 3-D slide from dorsal side • Note: – Somites, – Neural tube and cranial space – Notocord • Compare to Frog slices
  • 57.
  • 58.
  • 59.
  • 60. CLONING • Dedifferentiation of carrot cells. • Demonstration that frog cells are not terminally differentiated. • More difficult in mammals!!
  • 61.
  • 62.
  • 63. Summary • Development is part of a life cycle • Involves mitosis for nuclear division • Changes in control of DNA cause differentiation (different proteins made in different concentrations) • Genes and development steps are regulated by other genes throughout life
  • 64.
  • 66. Reproduction • To “produce again” • Life cycle includes both diploid and haploid phases • You, as an individual, are the diploid phase of a life cycle • Emphasis on phases leads to classification of life cycles
  • 67. Generalized Life Cycle Diploid phase Haploid phase meiosisFertilization/symgamy zygote gametes Diploid adult?? Haploid adult??
  • 68. Representative Examples • Chlamydomonas – haplontic (haploid dominant) life cycle, single celled • Ulothrix – haplontic life cycle, filamentous (colony?) • Ulva – diplohaplontic life cycle, multicellular in both haploid and diploid phases, phases equal. • Fern – diplontic (diploid dominant) life cycle • Animal Kingdom – extreme diplontic life cycle; learn Echinoderm, Ascaris, human
  • 70. Chlamydomonas • Protist • Chloroplast • Haplontic life cycle (Haploid dominant) • No mitosis in diploid phase of cycle • Represents very early Eukaryotic life cycles
  • 72. ULOTHRIX • Haplontic life cycle • “Multicellular” in haploid phase (colonial?) • Both growth and asexual reproduction by mitosis in haploid phase. • Diploid phase (resting spore) can only perform meiosis (no mitosis in diploid phase)
  • 73. New Terms • Gametophyte – the gamete-producing plant. This describes a multicellular HAPLOID phase in plant life cycles. This plant produces gametes by MITOSIS (chromosome number stays the same!). • Spore – a haploid cell that will divide by mitosis (usually to produce a gametophyte).
  • 74. More New Terms • Gametangium – in Ulothrix and many similar algae, it is a specialized cell that produces gametes by mitosis. • Sporangium, or zoosporangium – a specialized cell that produces spores (zoospores) by mitosis. • Zoospore – a spore that is flagellated.
  • 75. Diploid phase Resting spore only Haploid phase Includes spores, a multicellular filament (gametophyte), and gametes Ulothrix Haplontic style life cycle
  • 76. Alternation of generations • Ulva is our example • Introduction of mitosis in the diploid phase! • Eons of evolutionary time to develop • Loss of asexual reproduction in the haploid phase for some species. • Mitosis still in haploid phase for growth and production of gametes.
  • 77. New Terms • Sporophyte – the spore producing plant. This is the multicellular DIPLOID plant. It produces spores by MEIOSIS (chromosome number reduced from diploid to haploid). • Sporangium – specialized cells or ORGAN (multicellular structure) that produces spores by meiosis. Located on the sporophyte.
  • 78.
  • 79. Emphasis of Diploid Phase • Ferns, Conifers, Flowering Plants • Gametophyte becomes less important in the life cycle (smaller than sporophyte and with a shorter lifetime). • Sporophyte develops complex tissues and organs.
  • 80. New Terms for Fern • Thalus – name for the gametophyte (n). • Archegonium – gametophyte (haploid) organ that produces eggs by mitosis. • Antheridium – gametophyte (haploid) organ that produces sperm by mitosis. • Sorus – structure on underside of sporophyte leaf that contains many sporangia (diploid) that produce spores by meiosis.
  • 81.
  • 82.
  • 83.
  • 84.
  • 85. Evolutionary Trends • Shift in emphasis from haploid dominant to diploid dominant life cycles. • Shift from haploid to diploid organisms. • Single to multicellular; increased tissue differentiation; longer lives • Emphasis on mitosis for reproduction in haploid phase (asexual) to use of it for growth, then growth in diploid phase • Meiosis/fertilization ONCE per life cycle (sexual reproduction)
  • 86.
  • 87. SUMMARY • Switch in emphasis from dominant haploid to dominant diploid phases. • Development of multicellularity, then of tissue differentiation. • Role of MITOSIS undergoes significant change. • Roles of meiosis and fertilization do NOT change.