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4. • Carbohydrates is an organic compound that
occurs in living tissues or food and that can be
broken down into energy by peoples or by animals.
• Any group of organic compound, including
sugars, starches, celluloses and gums that contains
only carbon, hydrogen and oxygen and that
originates chiefly as a product of photosynthesis.
• Carbohydrates serves as a major energy source
for living things.
INTRODUCTION

5.  Carbohydrates are classified into three major
classes on the basis of complexity and behavior on
hydrolysis.
 They are:
1. Monosaccharides,
2. Oligosaccharides,
3. Polysaccharides.
CLASSIFICATION

6. 1. Monosaccharides:
• Simple sugars cannot be hydrolyzed into smaller
units, depending upon number of carbons in a
unit.
• Monosaccharides are subdivided into a Dioses to
Decoses.

7. a. Aldoses:
 Aldotrioses
Eg: Glycerose
 Aldotetroses
Eg: Erythrose
 Aldopentoses
Eg: Ribose
 Aldohexoses
Eg: Glucose, Galactose
 Aldoheptoses
Eg: Glucoheptose

8. b. Ketoses:
 Ketotrioses
Eg: Dihydroxyacetone
 Ketotetroses
Eg: Erythrulose
 Ketopentoses
Eg: Ribulose
 Ketohexoses
Eg: Fructose
 Ketoheptoses
Eg: Sedoheptulose

9. 2. Oligosaccharides:
Oligosaccharides are polymers of monosaccharides
containing two to ten residues accumulation in
vacuole while polysaccharide in plastids, they are
classified as:
a.Disaccharides,
b.Trisaccharides,
c.Tetrasaccharides

10. a.Disaccharides:
Yield two monosaccharides on hydrolysis:
i. Reducing Disaccharides:
Eg: Maltose(Glucose + Glucose),
Lactose(Galactose + Glucose),
Isomaltose,
Cellobiose.
ii. Non-reducing Disaccharides:
Eg: Sucrose (Glucose + Fructose)

11. b. Trisaccharides:
Eg: Raffinose( Glucose + Fructose + Galactose)
Found in cotton seeds and sugar bead.
c. Tetrasaccharides:
Yield 4 monosaccharides on hydrolysis.
Eg: Stachyose
(Glucose + Fructose + Galactose + Galactose)
Only Tetrasaccharides known to exist in plant

12. 3. Polysaccharides:
Polysaccharides are polymeric anhydrides of
monosaccharides. The long chain polymers are
either straight chain or branched.
They are also called Glycanes:
a. On the basis of Function,
b. On the basis of Composition.

13. a. On the basis of Function:
i. Storage:
Eg: Starch, Glycogen.
ii. Structural:
Eg: Cellulose, Pectin

14. b. On the basis of Composition:
i. Homopolysaccharides:
On hydrolysis gives single monosaccharide units.
• Pentosen: Contains Pentoses
• Hexosen: Contains Hexoses.
 Glucosans : Polymers of Glucose
Eg: Starch, Glycogen
 Fructosans: Polymers of Fructose
Eg: Insulin
 Galactans: Polymers of Galactose
Eg: Galactan
 Mannans: Polymers of Mannose
Eg: Mannas

15. ii. Heteropolysaccharides:
Eg: Hyaluronic acid, Chondroitin sulfates
 Gum: Consists of Arabinose, Rhamnose,
Galactose and Glucoronic acid
Agar: The sulphuric acid esters of Galactans
consists of Galactose, Galactouronic acid.
Pectins: Fundamental unit is pectic acid, consists
Arabinose, Galactose, Galactouronic acid.

16.  Three main types:
 Starch ( Complex Carbohydrates),
Sugar,
Fiber.
 On nutritional level “ total carbohydrates”
include all three types, which is useful in
carbohydrate counting.
Counting can be done by either adding up grams
of total carbohydrates or adding “ Carbohydrates
Units”.
1 Carbohydrate Unit = 15g of Carbohydrate
TYPES OF CARBOHYDRATES IN FOOD

17.  Starch:
• Food rich in starch include peas, potatoes, corn, dries
beans, kidney beans, etc..
• Majority of grain products are made from wheat flour
like pastas, bread, chapatis.
• Grain group includes:
- Whole grains,
- Refined grains.
• Grain has three parts:
1. Bran – Outer hard shell of the grain part that
provides most fiber and most of the B Vitamins and
Minerals.
2. Germ – Next layer, packed with Nutrients and Fatty
acids along with Vitamin E.
3. Endosperm – Soft part in the centre of the grain
which contains the starch.

18. Sugar:
• Simple, fast acting carbohydrates.
• Soluble in water,
• Sweet in taste,
• Monosaccharide and Disaccharides,
• Can be reducing or non- reducing,
• Two types:
- Natural Occurring:
Eg: Fructose in fruits, lactose in milk
- Added sugars:
Eg: Saccharin, Aspartame

19. Fiber:
• Common in plant foods: absent in animal products
like milk, eggs, meat, poultry, etc.
• It is the indigestible part of the plant foods (fruits,
vegetables, whole grains, nuts).
• Dietary fiber when consumed, mostly posses the
intestine and is not digested.
• For good health, 25-30gms of the fiber intake per day
is required in adults.
• Sources include:
- Fruits and vegetables
- Whole grains, cereals, oats, bread
- Nuts

20. I. Hygroscopic Nature:
• The word hygroscopic means water attracting.
• Sugar absorbs moisture from air, when it is
exposed to air and are known to be stored in
airtight container.
• Sugar and confectioneries made from sugar
tend to absorb moisture and become sticky
when exposed to air.
PROPERTIES OF
FOOD CARBOHYDRATES

21. II. Solubility:
• Sugars are soluble carbohydrates.
• The solubility of mono- and oligosaccharides in
water is good.
• Solubility decreases as the sugars come together,
as often happens in sugar powders or
granulates.
• The sugar arranged in descending order of
solubility are fructose, sucrose, glucose, maltose
and lactose.
• This property is important to obtain a
particular product when mixture of sugar is
used.

22. III. Crystallization:
• The ability of sugar to dissolve and reform
crystals.
• Sugar is dissolved in a liquid and heated, the
liquid evaporates, concentrating the sugar
solution . As a solution cools, the sugar re-form
into crystals.
• Crystals of sugar thus obtained are very
desirable in sugar coated preparations like
sugar coated nuts and other such as icings and
candies.

23. • Crystallization depends upon a number of factors
include:
- Nature of the crystallizing medium,
- Concentration of sugar in the preparation,
- Temperature at which crystallization takes
place,
- Agitation of the sugar preparation and the
addition of other ingredients such as butter,
ghee, egg, etc..
• The grater the concentration of the sugar in the
sugar preparation the faster is the rate of
crystallization.

24. IV. Gelatinization:
• When starch is mixed with water and heated the
starch granules swell and eventually rupture,
absorbing liquid which thickens the mixture.
On cooling, if enough starch is used, a gel forms.
• Gelatinization can take place in different
temperature range, commonly it takes place at
88ºC- 90ºC.
• Common thickening agents: plain wheat flour,
corn flour etc.
• Two factors affect the qualities of the gel
produced. These are the ratio of amylose to
amylopectin and the method used to prepare the
food.

25. V. Gelation:
• Gelation is method of solidification mainly
through freezing is the creation of gel or the
solidification of any gelation solution.
•The gelatin is used for gelation. The gelatin liquid
form a thick sugar solution and constantly thickens
when freezed. There is no any definite setting point.
•In some food gel is produced on cooling and in
some it may be formed on heating.
•Gels can either be thermo-irreversible or thermo-
reversible, it all depends on the type of gelation
occurred.

26. VI. Viscosity:
• Viscosity is a fluid’s resistance to flow or fluid
thickness. The thicker the liquid, more is its
viscosity.
• The viscosity of a fluid can be measured by
- Seeing how far a fluid can flow down an incline.
- Viscometer: measures the force necessary to
move through a liquid.
- Household instruments: measuring how far a
liquid can move on a slight incline after a
certain amount of time.

27. • Measuring of viscosity is to determine how
resistant that material is to following
- Flow down as light incline very quickly: very
little resistance to flow.
- Lot of force to move through a liquid, it has a lot
of resistance to flow.
•A fluid will be more resistant to flow the more
internal friction it has.

28. VII. Colloidal Property:
• Colloidal are formed when one substance is
dispersed into another, but does not combine to
form a solution.
• There are many types of colloidal system based on
the state of two substances mixed together.
• Most colloidal are stable, but the two substances
may separate over a period of time because of an
increase temperature or by physical force.
Sometime will be unstable when frozen or heated,
especially if they contain emulsion of fats and
water.

29. VIII. Emulsion:
Oil + Water = Emulsion
• Emulsion is unstable. The two liquids are
immiscible. A stable emulsion is formed when two
immiscible liquids are held stable by a third
substance called as an Emulsifying agent.
• There are two types of emulsifying agents,
Hydrophilic(Water Loving) and
Hydrophobic(Water Hating).
• Emulsions may be
 Oil in Water(o/w) – small oil droplets in
water(milk)
 Water in oil(w/o) – small water droplets in
oil(butter)

30. IX. Foaming:
• When small bubbles of gas dispersed in a liquid
they form foaming, Eg: egg white foam, as liquid
egg white is whisked, air bubbles get incorporated.
• If egg white is heated, protein coagulates and
moisture is driven off. This form a solid foam.

31. • Carbohydrates content can be measured after all
other components are measured.
• Directly measure the carbohydrate content:
GENERAL METHODS OF ANALYSIS OF
FOOD CARBOHYDRATES
%Carbohydrates=100-%Moisture-%Protein-%Lipid-%Mineral

32. • Some of the methods are used to analysis of food
carbohydrates.
• They are:
1. Chromatographic Method;
2. Electrophoretic Method;
3. Chemical Method;
4. Enzymatic Method;
5. Physical method;
6. Immunoassays.

33. 1.Chromatographic Method:
Most Powerful analytical techniques.
Analysis of type and concentration of mono-
and oligosaccharides.
Commonly used to separate and identify
carbohydrates:
i. Thin Layer Chromatography(TLC),
ii. Gas Chromatography (GC),
iii. High Performance Liquid
Chromatography(HPTLC).
Carbohydrates are separated base of their
differential absorption characteristics.

34. 2. Electrophoretic Method:
 Carbohydrates are separated by electrophoresis
after being derivatized- make them electrically
charged.
Solution of derivatized carbohydrates is applied
to a gel and a voltage is applied across.
 The carbohydrates are then separated base of
their size.
The smaller the size- faster it moves in an
electrical field.

35. 3. Chemical Method:
 These methods are used to determine mono- and
oligo because most of them are reducing sugars.
 Concentration of carbohydrates can be
determined:
i. Gravimetrically(Gravimetric method),
ii. Spectrophotometrically(Calorimetric methods),
iii. Titration methods.
 Non-reducing carbohydrates can be determined
but they have to be hydrolyzed.

36. 4. Enzymatic Method:
 They base on the ability of the enzymes to
catalyze specific reactions.
These methods are rapid, highly specific,
sensitive to low concentrations.
 Little sample preparation is required.
Liquid foods - can be tested directly
Solid foods - dissolved in water

37.  Two commonly used methods:
i. Allow the reaction to complete and measure the
concentration of the product
Concentration of the product – concentration of
the initial substance
ii. Measure the initial rate of the enzymes
catalyzed reactions
Rate – Substance concentration

38. 5. Physical method:
 These methods rely on being a change in
physicochemical characteristics as its
carbohydrates concentration varies.
Commonly used:
1. Polarimetry,
2. Refractive Index,
3. Infrared,
4. Density

39. 6. Immunoassays:
 Specific for low molecular weight carbohydrates.
 Developed by:
i. Attaching the carbohydrates to a protein,
ii. Injecting it into an animal,
iii. Animal develops antibodies specific for the
carbohydrate molecule,
iv. Antibodies are extracted and used for
determining the concentration of the
carbohydrate.
 Immunoassays are extremely sensitive, specific,
easy to use and rapid.

40. • The carbohydrates are involved in the browning
that occurs during thermal processing.
• That browning is responsible for much of the
color and aroma of the foods.
• The changes that starch undergoes as it is heated
with water has a great influence on texture and
taste of many of our foods.
CHANGES IN FOOD CARBOHYDRATES
DURING PROCESSING

41. Chemical changes in carbohydrates produced by
Thermal Processing:
• Carbohydrates are the predominant chemical
species in our diet.
• They are the major source of both energy and
fiber.
• Chemically, carbohydrates vary from the low
molecular weight sugars such as Glucose, Fructose,
and Sucrose, to some of the largest natural
polymers known as Amylopectin and Cellulose.

42. • Some of these high molecular weight entities are
made up of a single – simple sugars, for example,
amylopectin fraction of starch is made of
essentially glucose with a molecular weight of
400ⅹ10⁶, it thus contains about 3ⅹ10⁶ glucose
residues.
• Other complex carbohydrates consists of
numerous sugars and may contain non-
carbohydrates, such as Proteins, Lipids and
Phenolics.

43. • Most of our foods are thermally treated in
bakeries or canneries before we consume them.
• In many instances, the thermal treatment is
carried out by processing establishments and by
the purchaser, for example, bread is backed in
bakeries and may be reheated or toasted just
before consumption.
• Almost invariably the thermal treatment changes
the food.
• Such changes often involves reactions of the
carbohydrates and can be quite complex.

44. Carbohydrates in the diet provide the major
exogenous source for glucose, which is the primary
energy source for cells. They account for 40-60% of
the calories in the western diet and higher
percentages in protein scarce diets. Each gram of
carbohydrate provides 4 calories.
DIGESTION, ABSORPTION AND
METABOLISM
OF FOOD CARBOHYDRATES

45. Digestion And Absorption of Food Carbohydrates:

46. Metabolism of Food Carbohydrates:

47. • Carbohydrates provide fuel for the central
nervous system and energy for working
muscles.
• They also prevent protein from being used as
an energy source and enable fat metabolism.
• Carbohydrates are important for brain
function.
• There are natural sugars in vegetables, fruits,
milk, and honey. Added sugars are found in
processed foods, syrups, sugary drinks, and
sweets.
APPLICATIONS OF
FOOD CARBOHYDRATES