This document provides an overview of the Python programming language. It discusses Python's history, features, and why it is a good programming language. Key points covered include: - Python was created in the late 1980s and draws from many other languages. - It is an open source, interpreted, object-oriented, and portable language with a large online community and library support. - Python code is compiled to bytecode for performance. It has dynamic typing, automatic memory management, and is powerful yet easy to learn. - The document reviews Python statements, expressions, variables, basic data types, functions, modules and exceptions. It provides examples of Python code.

1. Shell Programming & Scripting Languages
Dr. K. Sasidhar

2. UNIT – IV Contents
 Introduction to python language
 python-syntax
 statements
 functions, Built-in-functions and Methods
 Modules in python
 Exception Handling

3. UNIT IV Outcomes
 From the IV unit Student can
 Understand python programming features and its statements
 Write and execute programs with basic concepts, functions,
Modules and Exception Handling.
 Analyze the problem statements and can write solution in the
form of a python program.
 Arrives to a conclusion about programming languages
principles by comparing python with other Programming
languages already he/she learnt in the previous semesters.

4. Python
Python was developed by Guido van Rossum in the late
eighties at the National Research Institute for Mathematics
and Computer Science in Netherlands.
Python is derived from many other Programming
languages including, C, C++, Algol-68, Smalltalk, Unix
shell and other scripting languages

5. Why Python?
 Python is object-oriented
 Structure supports Encapsulation, polymorphism,
Abstraction, multiple inheritance
 It's open source, so downloading and installing Python
is free and easy
 Source code is easily accessible
 Online Python community is huge to support the
Python programmers
 It's portable
 Python runs on every major platform

6.  Python programs will run in the same manner, irrespective of
platform
 It's powerful
 Dynamic typing
 Built-in types and tools
 Library utilities
 Third party utilities (numeric, NumPy, SciPy)
 Automatic memory management
 Can design data structures, web applications, Database
programs, games etc…
Why Python?

7.  Python's library is very portable and cross-platform compatible
on UNIX, Windows, and Macintosh.
 Support for an interactive mode which allows interactive
testing and debugging the code.
 Python can be linked to components written in other languages
easily
 Linking to fast, compiled code is useful to computationally
intensive problems
 Python is good for code steering and for merging multiple
programs
Why Python?

8.  WARP is implemented in a mixture of Python and Fortran
 Python programs are compiled automatically to an intermediate
form called bytecode, which the interpreter then reads
 This gives Python the development speed of an interpreter
without the performance loss inherent in purely interpreted
languages
 It's easy to learn also.
 Structure and syntax are pretty intuitive and easy to grasp
Why Python?

9. Running Python
 Unix: IDLE is the very first Unix IDE for Python.
 Windows: PythonWin is the first Windows interface for
Python and is an IDE with a GUI.
 Macintosh: The Macintosh version of Python along
with the IDLE IDE is available from the
main website, downloadable as either
MacBinary or BinHex'd files.

10. 10
 source code: The sequence of instructions in a program.
 syntax: The set of legal structures and commands that can be used
in a particular programming language.
 output: The messages printed to the user by a program.
 console: The text box onto which output is printed.
 Some source code editors pop up the console as an external
window, and others contain their own console window.
Programming basics

11. 11
Compiling and interpreting
 Many languages require you to compile (translate) program
into a form that the machine understands.
 Python is instead directly interpreted into machine instructions.
compile execute
outputsource code
Hello.java
byte code
Hello.class
interpret
outputsource code
Hello.py

12. Reserved Words
 And exec Not Assert finally or
Break for pass Class from
print Continue global raise def if
return del import try elif in
while else is with except
lambda yield

13. 13
Expressions
 expression: A data value or set of operations to compute a
value.
 Examples: 1 + 4 * 3
 Arithmetic operators we will use:
 + - * / addition, subtraction/negation, multiplication, division
 % modulus, a.k.a. remainder
 ** exponentiation
 precedence: Order in which operations are computed.
 * / % ** have a higher precedence than + -
1 + 3 * 4 is 13
 Parentheses can be used to force a certain order of evaluation.
(1 + 3) * 4 is 16

14. 14
Real numbers
 Python can also manipulate real numbers.
 Examples: 6.022-15.9997 42.0 2.143e17
 The operators + - * / % ** ( ) all work for real
numbers.
 The / produces an exact answer: 15.0 / 2.0 is 7.5
 The same rules of precedence also apply to real
numbers:
Evaluate ( ) before * / % before + -
 When integers and reals are mixed, the result is a real
number.
 Example: 1 / 2.0 is 0.5

15. 15
Math commands (import math)
 Python has useful commands for performing calculations.
Command name Description
abs(value) absolute value
ceil(value) rounds up
cos(value) cosine, in radians
floor(value) rounds down
log(value) logarithm, base e
log10(value) logarithm, base 10
max(value1, value2) larger of two values
min(value1, value2) smaller of two values
round(value) nearest whole number
sin(value) sine, in radians
sqrt(value) square root
Constant Description
e 2.7182818...
pi 3.1415926...

16. 16
Variables
 variable:A named piece of memory that can store a
value.
 Usage:

Compute an expression's result,

store that result into a variable,

and use that variable later in the program.
 assignment statement: Stores a value into a variable.
 Syntax: name = value
 Examples: x = 5
gpa = 3.14
 x 5 gpa 3.14
 A variable that has been given a value can be used in
expressions.
 x + 4 is 9

17. 17
 print : Produces text output on the console.
 Syntax:
print "Message"
print Expression
 Prints the given text message or expression value on the
console, and moves the cursor down to the next line.
 print Item1, Item2, ..., ItemN
 Prints several messages and/or expressions on the same
line.
 Example:
 print "Hello, world!"
 age = 45
 print "You have", 65 - age, "years until retirement"
 Output:
 Hello, world!
 You have 20 years until retirement
print

18. 18
 Reads a number from user input.
 You can assign (store) the result of input into a variable.
 Example Program:
import sys
age = int(input("How old are you? "))
print "Your age is", age
print (“No. of years for retirement”, 65-age)
 Output:
 How old are you? 53
 Your age is 53
 No. of years for retirement: 12
input statement

19. Programming Basics
 Programs are composed of modules
 Modules contain statements
 Statements contain expressions
 Expressions create and process objects

20. Built-in Objects
 Make programs easy to write
 Components of extensions
 More efficient
 Standard part of language

21. Program statements
 You can run programs at command prompt or IDLE Window
 print(“hello world!”)
 Arithmetic operations:
 5+4 or print(5+4)
 5-4 or print(5-4)
 5*4 or print(5*4)
 5/4 or print(5/4)  displays 1.25
 5//4 or print(5//4)  displays 1
 5%4 or print(5%4)

22. Program Statements
 2**8  displays 256
 Name=‘sasidhar’
 Name displays sasidhar
 ‘sasidhar|’ * 8  displays sasidhar|sasidhar| for 8 times
 Import os
 os.getcwd()  displays the current python version with
its path

23. Python Script
Type the following program in idle and save it as script1.py
Import sys # Load a library module
print(sys.platform)
Print(2**100)
X=‘Sasidhar|’
print(x*8)

24. Core data types & Built-in Objects in Python
Object type Example literals / creation
Numbers 1234, 3.145, 3+4j
Strings ‘anil’, ‘ax01c’
Lists [1, [2, ‘three’], 4]
Dictionaries {‘food’: ‘spam’, ‘taste’:}
Tuples (1, ‘anil’, 77, ‘ecm’)
Files myfile = open(‘ecm’, ‘r’)
Sets set(‘abc’), {‘a’, ‘b’, ‘c’}
Other core types Booleans, types, None
Program unit types Functions, modules, classes
Implementation types Compiled code, stacktracebacks

25. Strings and its operations
 Strings are used to record textual information as well as
bytes.
 s=“anil”
 len(s)
 s[0]  displays a
 s[4] or s[-1]  displays l
 s[1:3]  displays ni
 s + xyz  anilxyz
 s.find(il)  found at 2
 s.replace(‘an’, ‘man’)

26. String operations
 s.split  splits based on delimeter
 s.upper()  displays in capital letters.
 s.lower()  displays in small case letters
 s.isalpha()  tests the text.
 s.rstrip()  removes the whitespace characters on right side

27. Lists (Data Structures)
 Lists are ordered collections of arbitrarily typed objects
and they have no fixed size.
 Lists are mutable.
 Lists supports all sequence of operations similar to
strings. The difference is the result will be displayed in
lists.
 Ex: L=[13, ‘anil’, 88]
 L[1]  displays anil
 L[:-1]  displays anil, 88
 L + [4,5,6 ]  displays [13,anil,88, 4,5,6]

28. Operations on Lists
 L.append(‘kk’)  adds element kk at the end of the list
 L  displays anilkk
 L.pop (2)  deletes the 2nd
element from the list
 L.sort()  sorts in ascending order
 L.reverse()  in reverse order.

29. List Operations
 len([1,2,3])
 3
 [1,2,3] + [4,5,6]
 [1,2,3,4,5,6]
 [‘Anil’] * 4  [‘Anil’, ‘Anil’, ‘Anil’, ‘Anil’]
 str([1,2]) + “34”  [1,2]34
 [1,2] + list(“34”)  [1,2,’3’,’4’]

30. Nesting
 Nesting of lists is possible in python. Application is matrix.
 A = [ [1,2,3],
[4,5,6],
[7,8,9]]
>>> A  displays [[1,2,3], [4,5,6], [7,8,9] ]
>>> A[1]  displays [4,5,6]
>>> A[1,2]  displays [6]

31. Comprehensions
 Useful to process the matrix like structures.
 Example1: to extract 2nd
column from the matrix:
 Col2= [ row[1] for row in A ]
 Col2  displays [2,5,8]
 Example2: [row[1] + 1for row in A]
 Example3:
 [row[1] for row in A if row[1]%2 ==0]  [2,8]

32. List built-in functions
 cmp(list1, list2)  Compares elements of both lists.
 len(list)  Gives the total length of the list
 max(list) Returns item from the list with max value.
 min(list) Returns item from the list with min value.
 list(seq) Converts a tuple into list.

33. Control statements
if condition
if expression:
statement
if-else statement
if expression:
statement
else:
statement
elif statement
if expression1:
statement
elif expression2:
statement
elif expression3:
statement
else:
statement

34. Looping Statements
 while loop
 while expression:
 statements
Example:
count = 0
while (count < 10):
print ‘Count is:', count
count = count + 1

35. for loop
for var in sequence:
statements

36. Tuples
 tuple = ( 'abcd', 786 , 2.23, 'john', 70.2 )
 tinytuple = (123, 'john')
 print tuple # Prints complete list
 print tuple[0] # Prints first element of the list
 print tuple[1:3] # Prints elements starting from 2nd till
3rd
 print tuple[2:] # Prints elements starting from 3rd
element
 print tinytuple * 2 # Prints list two times
 print tuple + tinytuple # Prints concatenated lists

37. Tuples vs. Lists
 Lists slower but more powerful than tuples
 Lists can be modified, and they have lots of handy
operations and mehtods
 Tuples are immutable and have fewer features
 To convert between tuples and lists use the list()
and tuple() functions:
li = list(tu)
tu = tuple(li)

38. Dictionaries
 Python's dictionaries are kind of hash table type.
 They work like associative arrays or hashes and consist of
key-value pairs.
 A dictionary key can be almost any Python type, but are
usually numbers or strings.
 Values, on the other hand, can be any arbitrary Python
object.
 Dictionaries are enclosed by curly braces ({ }) and values
can be assigned and accessed using square braces ([]).

39. Dictionaries Example
 dict = { }
 dict['one'] = "This is one"
 dict[2] = "This is two"
 tinydict = {'name': 'john','code':6734, 'dept': 'sales'}
 print dict['one'] # Prints value for 'one' key
 print dict[2] # Prints value for 2 key
 print tinydict # Prints complete dictionary
 print tinydict.keys() # Prints only keys: name,code,dept
 print tinydict.values() # Prints all the values

40. Working with Time namespace
 import time
 >>> ticks = time.time()
 >>> print("no.of ticks since 12am, march31, 2015:", ticks)
 Getting current time:
 import time;
 localtime = time.localtime(time.time())
 print "Local current time :", localtime
 Formatted time:
 localtime = time.asctime( time.localtime(time.time()) )

41. Working with calendar namespace in python
 import calendar
 cal = calendar.month(2016, 3)
 print "Here is the calendar:"
 print cal;

42. Python’s Statements
 Statement Role Example
 Assignment Creating references a, *b = 'good', 'bad',
'ugly'
 Calls and other expressions Running functions log.write("spam, ham")
 print calls Printing objects print('The Killer', joke)
 if/elif/else Selecting actions if "python" in text:
 print(text)
 for/else Sequence iteration for x in mylist:
 print(x)
 while/else General loops while X > Y:
 print('hello')
 Pass Empty placeholder while True:
 pass
 break Loop exit while True:
 if exittest(): break
 Continue Loop continue while True:
 if skiptest(): continue

43. Python’s Statements …
 def Functions and methods def f(a, b, c=1, *d):
 print(a+b+c+d[0])
 return Functions results def f(a, b, c=1, *d):
 return a+b+c+d[0]
 yield Generator functions def gen(n):
 for i in n: yield i*2
 global Namespaces x = 'old'
 def function():
 global x, y; x = 'new'
 import Module access import sys
 from Attribute access from sys import stdin
 class Building objects class Subclass(Superclass):
 staticData = []
 def method(self): pass

44. Statements of Python
 try/except/ finally Catching exceptions try:
 action()
 except:
 print('action error')
 raise Triggering exceptions raise
EndSearch(location)
 assert Debugging checks assert X > Y, 'X
too small'
 with/as Context managers (2.6+) with
open('data') as myfile:
 process(myfile)

45. Command Line arguments in Python
 import sys
 print ('Number of arguments:', len(sys.argv), 'arguments.‘)
 print 'Argument List:', str(sys.argv)

46. Functions
 Function blocks begin with the keyword def followed by
the function name and parentheses ( ( ) ).
 Any input parameters or arguments should be placed
within these parentheses. Can also define parameters
inside these parentheses.
 The first statement of a function can be an optional
statement - the documentation string of the function or
docstring.
 The code block within every function starts with a colon
(:) and is indented.

47.  The statement return [expression] exits a function,
optionally passing back an expression to the caller.
 A return statement with no arguments is the same as
return None.
 def printme( str ):
 "This prints a passed string into this function"
 print str
 return
Functions

48. Function calling
 # function definition
 def display(str):
 "this prints sasidhar“ # value for str argument
 print(str);
 return;
 # function calling
 display("hi this is sasidhar");
 display("second time sasidhar");

49. Pass by reference
 All parameters (arguments) in the Python language are
passed by reference.
 If you change the parameter that refers to within a
function, the change also reflects back in the calling
function.

50. Example
 # function definition
 def changelist( mylist ):
 # "This changes a passed list into this function"
mylist.append([1,2,3,4]);
 Print( "Values inside the function: ", mylist)
 return
 #call changelist function
 mylist = [10,20,30];
 changelist( mylist );
 print( "Values outside the function: ", mylist)
 Output:
 Values inside the function: [10, 20, 30, [1, 2, 3, 4]]
 Values outside the function: [10, 20, 30, [1, 2, 3, 4]]

51. Example for passed by reference and
overwritten inside the function.
 mylist = [1,2,3,4]; # global variable
 def changeme( mylist ):
 print "Values inside the function: ", mylist
 return
 # Now call changeme function
 mylist = [10,20,30];
 changeme( mylist );
 print "Values outside the function: ", mylist
 Output:
 Values inside the function: [10, 20, 30]
 Values outside the function: [10, 20, 30]

52. Function Arguments
 Required arguments
 Keyword arguments
 Default arguments
 Variable-length arguments

53. Required arguments
 Required arguments are the arguments passed to a
function in correct positional order. Here, the number of
arguments in the function call should match exactly with
the function definition.

54. Keyword arguments
 Keyword arguments are related to the function calls.
When you use keyword arguments in a function call, the
caller identifies the arguments by the parameter name.
 This allows you to skip arguments or place them out of
order because the Python interpreter is able to use the
keywords provided to match the values with parameters.

55. Example for keyword argument
 def printme( str ):
 "This prints a passed string into this function"
 print str;
 return;
 # Now call printme function
 printme( str = "My string");

56. Default arguments
 A default argument is an argument that assumes a default
value if a value is not provided in the function call for that
argument. The following example gives an idea on default
arguments, it prints default age if it is not passed:

57. Example
 def printinfo( name, age = 35 ):
 "This prints a passed info into this function"
 print "Name: ", name;
 print "Age ", age;
 return;
 # Now you can call printinfo function
printinfo( age=50, name="miki" );
printinfo( name="miki" );

58. Variable Length Arguments
 To process a function for more arguments than specified
while defining the function.
 These arguments are called variable-length arguments
 An asterisk (*) is placed before the variable name that
holds the values of all non-keyword variable arguments.

59. Example for variable length arguments
 def printinfo( arg1, *vartuple ):
print "Output is: "
print arg1 #“This prints variable passed arguments"
for var in vartuple:
print (var)
return;
 # Now call printinfo function
 printinfo( 10 );
 printinfo( 70, 60, 50 );

60. Anonymous functions : lambda
 The functions that are not declared in the standard manner by
using the def keyword are called anonymous functions.
 The lambda keyword is used to create small anonymous
functions.
 Lambda forms can take any number of arguments but return
just one value in the form of an expression. They cannot
contain commands or multiple expressions.
 An anonymous function cannot be a direct call to print because
lambda requires an expression.
 Lambda functions have their own local namespace and cannot
access variables other than those in their parameter list and
those in the global namespace.

61. Anonymous functions : lambda
 These functions are not like inline functions in c++
 Syntax: lambda [arg1 [,arg2,.....argn]] :expression
 sum=lambda arg1, arg2: arg1+ arg2
 print(" value of total:", sum(10,22))
 print("value of total:", sum(20,20))

62. Return statement
 def sum( arg1, arg2 ):
 total = arg1 + arg2
 print "Inside the function : ", total
 return total
 total = sum( 10, 20 );
 print( "Outside the function : ", total )

63. Scope of variables
 Variables declared inside the function are local and can
be accessible with in that function
 Variables declared outside the function are global and can
be accessible from the calling or outside of the function.

64. Module
 A module allows to logically organize the Python code.
Grouping related code into a module makes the code easier to
understand and use. A module is an object with arbitrarily
named attributes that you can bind and reference. A module
can define functions, classes and variables.
 # Import built-in module math
 import math
 content = dir(math)
 print content;

65. Simple calculator Program Using functions
 """This function adds two numbers"""
 def add(x,y):
 return x + y
 def subtract(x, y):
 """This function subtracts two numbers"""
 return x - y def multiply(x, y):
 """This function multiplies two numbers""“
 return x * y def divide(x, y):
 """This function divides two numbers"""
 return x / y # take input from the user print("Select operation.")
 print("1.Add")
 print("2.Subtract")
 print("3.Multiply")
 print("4.Divide")
 choice = input("Enter choice(1/2/3/4):")

66.  num1 = int(input("Enter first number: "))
 num2 = int(input("Enter second number: "))
 if choice == '1':
 print(num1,"+",num2,"=", add(num1,num2))
 elif choice == '2':
 print(num1,"-",num2,"=", subtract(num1,num2))
 elif choice == '3': print(num1,"*",num2,"=",
multiply(num1,num2))
 elif choice == '4': print(num1,"/",num2,"=", divide(num1,num2))
else: print("Invalid input")

67. Files I/O
 Reading input from keyboard:
 Input, raw_input
 The raw_input([prompt]) function reads one line from
standard input and returns it as a string (removing the
trailing newline).
 Example:
 str = raw_input("Enter your input: ");
 print "Received input is : ", str

68. Opening files
 A file can be opened using open() function.
 Syntax:
 file object = open(file_name [, access_mode][, buffering])
 access mode = file has to be opened in read or write or
append mode.
 f1 = open(“ecm.txt", "wb")
 print "Name of the file: ", f1.name
 print "Closed or not : ", f1.closed
 print "Opening mode : ", f1.mode

69. File open modes
Mode Description
r Opens a file for reading only. The file pointer is
placed at the beginning of the file. This is the
default mode.
rb Opens a file for reading only in binary format. The
file pointer is placed at the beginning of the file. This
is the default mode.
r+ Opens a file for both reading and writing. The file
pointer is placed at the beginning of the file.
rb+ Opens a file for both reading and writing in binary
format. The file pointer is placed at the beginning of
the file.

70. File access modes
Mode Description
w Opens a file for writing only. Overwrites the file if
the file exists. If the file does not exist, creates a
new file for writing.
wb Opens a file for writing only in binary format.
Overwrites the file if the file exists. If the file does
not exist, creates a new file for writing.
w+ Opens a file for both writing and reading.
Overwrites the existing file if the file exists. If the file
does not exist, creates a new file for reading and
writing.

71. Mode Description
wb+
Opens a file for both writing and reading in binary
format. Overwrites the existing file if the file exists.
If the file does not exist, creates a new file for
reading and writing.
a Opens a file for appending. The file pointer is at the
end of the file if the file exists. That is, the file is in
the append mode. If the file does not exist, it creates
a new file for writing.
a+ Opens a file for both appending and reading. The
file pointer is at the end of the file if the file exists.
The file opens in the append mode. If the file does
not exist, it creates a new file for reading and
writing.

72. Closing, reading and writing files
 close() method of file object closes the file
 Syntax: fileObject.close();
 write() and read() methods are used to read and write
files.
 fileObject.read([count]);
 Passed parameter is the number of bytes to be read from
the opened file. This method starts reading from the
beginning of the file and if count is missing, then it tries to
read as much as possible, maybe until the end of file.

73.  Write() is used to write the data into the file.
 fileObject.write(string);
 fo = open(“python.txt", "wb")
 fo.write( "Python is a good language.!n");
 # Close opend file
 fo.close()
Closing, reading and writing files

74.  fo = open(“python.txt", "r+")
 str = fo.read(10);
 print "Read String is : ", str
 # Close opend file
 fo.close()
Closing, reading and writing files

75. File Positions
 tell() method tells you the current position within the file
 seek(offset[, from]) method changes the current file position.
 The offset argument indicates the number of bytes to be
moved.
 The from argument specifies the reference position from
where the bytes are to be moved.

76. Example
 # Open a file
 fo = open(“ecm.txt", "r+")
 str = fo.read(10);
 print "Read String is : ", str
 # Check current position
 position = fo.tell();
 print "Current file position : ", position
 # Reposition pointer at the beginning once again
 position = fo.seek(0, 0);
 str = fo.read(10);
 print "Again read String is : ", str
 # Close opend file
 fo.close()

77. Renaming and Deleting Files
 rename() method takes two arguments, the current
filename and the new filename.
 os.rename(current_file_name, new_file_name)
 Example:
 import os
 # Rename a file from test1.txt to test2.txt
 os.rename( "test1.txt", "test2.txt" )

78. remove() Method
 remove() method is used to delete files by supplying the
name of the file to be deleted as the argument.
 os.remove(file_name)
 Example:
 import os
 # Delete file test2.txt
 os.remove("text2.txt")

79. Exception Handling
 An exception is an event, that occurs during the execution of a
program and that disrupts the normal flow of the program
Execution.
 An exception is a Python object that represents an error.
 When an exception raises in python program, it must either
handle the exception immediately otherwise it terminates and
quits.
 Handling an Exception
 If any suspicious code that may raise an exception, then, place
the suspicious code in a try: block.
 After the try: block, include an except: statement, followed by
a block of code which handles the problem as elegantly as
possible.

80. try and except blocks
 try:
 <block of statements> #main code to run
 except <name1>: #handler for exception
 <block of statements>
 except <name2>,<data>: #handler for exception
 <block of statements>
 except (<name3>,<name4>): #handler for exception
 <block of statements>
 except: #handler for exception
 <block of statements>
 else: # optional, runs if no exception occurs
 <block of statements>

81. Example
 >>>try:
 action()
 except NameError(): …
 except IndexError(): …
 except KeyError(): …
 except (AttributeError,TypeError,SyntaxError):…
 else: ….
 General catch-all clause: add empty except.
 It may catch unrelated to your code system exceptions.
 It may catch exceptions meant for other handler (system
exit)

82. Example program
def division(x,y):
try:
return x/y
except ZeroDivisionError:
print("division by zero")

83.  elseelse is used to verify if no exception occurred in trytry.
 You can always eliminate elseelse by moving its logic at the
end of the trytry block.
 However, if “else statement” triggers exceptions, it
would be misclassified as exception in try block.
try/else

84. try/finally
 In try/finallytry/finally, finallyfinally block is always run whether an
exception occurs or not
 try:
 <block of statements>
 finally:
 <block of statements>
 Ensure some actions to be done in any case
 It can not be used in the trytry with exceptexcept and elseelse.

85. Example for try .. finally
 def division(x,y):
 try:
 return x/y
 except ZeroDivisionError:
 print("division by zero")
 finally:
 print("it executes compulsory")

86. Built-in Exceptions

87. Built-in Exceptions

88. Built-in Exceptions

89. Raise
 raise triggers exceptions explicitly
 raise <name>
 raise <name>,<data> # provide data to handler
 raise #re-raise last exception
 >>>try:
 raise ‘zero’, (3,0)
 except ‘zero’: print “zero argument”
 except ‘zero’, data: print data
 Last form may be useful if you want to propagate cought
exception to another handler.
 Exception name: built-in name, string, user-defined class

90.  def result(marks ):
 if marks < 40:
 raise “fail!", marks