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4. News & Views
Featuring news this month about a major reptile event in
London, how biologists have made a significant breakthrough in
understanding how young turtles live in the oceans, how a new reptile
product is helping rescued reptiles, and starting with a breakthrough in
our understanding of snake development.
the Swahili word for snake, and the species
name is in honour of palaeontologist J.
Alan Holman.
However, the team was surprised to
discover that the fauna actually revealed
more colubroids than booids. That
higher-than-expected concentration of
colubroid snakes suggests that the local
environment became more open and
seasonally dry—and, in turn, more
hospitable to these active foraging types of
snakes that don’t require cover to hide and
ambush prey—at an earlier time in Africa
than in most other parts of the world, as
documented in previous studies.
“This finding gives further strength to
the idea that tectonic activity in the East
African Rift has helped to shape animal
habitats in fascinating ways,”says Nancy
Stevens, an associate professor of
biomedical sciences at Ohio University and
co-author of the study. “The fossils suggest
a fundamental shift toward more
active and potentially venomous
snakes that could exert very
Oldest booid in Africa unearthed
S
cientists from Ohio University have
discovered the oldest definitive
evidence of modern venomous
snakes in Africa, following studies in
the Rukwa Rift Basin in Tanzania. The
newly-discovered fossils reveal that elaphid
snakes such as cobras were present in that
region as early as 25 million years ago. They
form part of a larger group of snakes
known as colubroids – active foragers that
use a variety of methods, including venom,
to capture and kill prey.
Colubroid fossils are documented as
early as 50 million years ago, but the Ohio
team were not expecting to find that this
group constituted such a large part of the
African snake fauna 25 million years ago, as
they only became dominant in Europe and
North America much later.
“During the Oligocene epoch, from
about 34 to 23 million years ago, we would
have expected to see a fauna dominated
by booid snakes, such as boas and pythons.
These are generally‘sit and wait’
constricting predators that hide and
christened
name with
… Cobras such as this
snouted cobra (Naja
annulifera) are
well-equipped to hunt in
open country.
‡ The bulky nature of
booids means that they
tend to be ambush-
predators.
Stevens, an associate professor of
biomedical sciences at Ohio University and
co-author of the study. “The fossils suggest
a fundamental shift toward more
active and potentially venomous
snakes that could exert very
different pressures on the local
fauna.”
Meanwhile, more fossils from
additional locations should indicate
whether colubroid snakes dominated all
of Africa during the Oligocene
or just the local
region around
the Rukwa
Rift area.
“During the Oligocene epoch, from
about 34 to 23 million years ago, we would
have expected to see a fauna dominated
by booid snakes, such as boas and pythons.
These are generally‘sit and wait’
constricting predators that hide and
ambush passing prey,”explains lead
investigator Jacob McCartney.
The team also found Africa’s oldest
known booid snake, dating back to the
. This new species has been
Rukwanyoka holmani;
the genus name
combines the
Rukwa region
…
snouted cobra
annulifera)
well-equipped to hunt in
open country.
‡
booids means that they
tend to be ambush-
predators.
Further information
Jacob A. McCartney, Nancy J. Stevens,
Patrick M. O’Connor. The Earliest
Colubroid-Dominated Snake
Fauna from Africa: Perspectives
from the Late Oligocene Nsungwe
Formation of Southwestern
Tanzania. PLoS ONE, 2014; 9 (3):
e90415 DOI: 10.1371/journal.
pone.0090415
R
escue charity, Animals in Distress, provides a safe haven for animals that have been
victims of neglect, abuse or abandonment, in the Greater Manchester area.
With everything from horses to hounds, and rodents to reptiles, the centre relies
entirely on public donations to keep their operation running.
Many of the animals which arrive in poor health are given Verm-X as part of their health
care regime. Horses, dogs and cats rescued by the charity are often too weak for harsh
chemical treatments so Verm-X is ideal from them as it is natural and gentle on the digestive
system, yet powerful and effective at promoting intestinal hygiene.
2013 saw the launch of‘Verm-X for Reptiles’which was a welcome addition to the range for
reptile enthusiasts across the globe.
Centre Manager Melanie Dunn explains:“Providing Verm-X for the reptiles which come in
to the centre is important to promote intestinal hygiene, especially as with any of the
reptiles, we don’t know their backgrounds.
“At the moment we have bearded dragons, tortoises,
iguanas and various snakes all on Verm-X. As I have done
with other species, including the horses, they will have
regular worm counts to assure me that Verm-X is doing its
job.”
In addition to daily protection of intestinal hygiene,
Verm-X for Reptiles also has other health benefits thanks
to the herbs, vitamins and minerals in its unique
formulation.
* For more information about Animals in Distress
please contact them on 01706 371 731. To learn more
about Verm-X for reptiles, visit www.verm-x-com
RescuedreptilesbenefitfromRescuedreptilesbenefitfrom
Melanie’s daughter with
one of the rescue’s
snakes.
Centre Manager Melanie Dunn explains:“Providing Verm-X for the reptiles which come in
to the centre is important to promote intestinal hygiene, especially as with many of the
5. MAY 2014 | 5
Unravelling
the lost years
O
ne of the great remaining
mysteries in turtle biology has
been where hatchlings vanish
to, after they scurry down the
nesting beaches into the ocean. This
period has become known as the
“lost years”amongst turtle biologists,
because it is only years later that the
turtles ultimately reappear in coastal
waters as juveniles.
Now however, advances in
technology are starting to unravel
this mystery. Small, non-invasive,
solar-powered satellite transmitters
attached to the turtles’shells
enabled a team of Florida Atlantic
University scientists to track 17
neonate loggerhead sea turtles for
periods ranging from 27 to 220 days,
and for distances ranging from
200-4300km (124-2672ml).
“Prior to tagging these threatened
sea turtles, all we knew about this
part of their life’s journey came from
one turtle that had been followed
for three days,”says Jeanette
Wyneken, associate professor of
biological science.“From the time
they leave our shores, we don’t hear
anything about them until they are
found near the Canary Islands.
Those waters are a bit like nursery
school for them, as they stay for
about four to eight years. There’s a
whole lot that happens crossing the
Atlantic that we knew nothing
about.”
While the turtles remain in
oceanic waters off the Continental
Shelf, the study found that little
loggerhead turtles sought the
surface of the water as predicted.
But they do not necessarily remain
within the major currents associated
with the area of the ocean known as
the North Atlantic Subtropical Gyre.
It was historically thought that
loggerhead turtles hatching from
Florida’s east coast complete a long,
developmental migration in a large
circle around the Atlantic swimming
in these currents. But the team’s data
suggest that turtles may drop out of
the currents into the middle of the
Atlantic or the Sargasso Sea.
The team also found that the
turtles mostly stayed at the sea
surface, where they were exposed to
the sun’s energy, and the turtles’
shells registered more heat than
anticipated (as recorded by sensors
in the satellite tags), leading the
team to consider a new hypothesis
about why the turtles seek refuge in
sargassum, a type of seaweed found
on the surface of the water in the
deep ocean. Sargassum is a habitat
long associated with young sea
turtles.
“We propose that young turtles
remain at the sea surface to gain a
thermal benefit,”says researcher Kate
Mansfield.“This makes sense
because the turtles are cold blooded
animals. By remaining at the sea
surface, and by associating with
sargassum habitat, turtles gain a
thermal refuge of sorts that may
help enhance growth and feeding
rates, among other physiological
benefits.”
Further information
K. L. Mansfield, J. Wyneken, W. P.
Porter, J. Luo. First satellite
tracks of neonate sea turtles
redefine the‘lost years’
oceanic niche. Proceedings of
the Royal Society B: Biological
Sciences, 2014; 281 (1781):
20133039 DOI: 10.1098/
rspb.2013.3039
Young loggerhead
turtles head down
to the sea.
W
ildlife explorer Steve Backshall, star of some of the UK’s most
exciting wildlife shows, will be bringing number of the world’s
weirdest animals to the London Pet Show, sponsored by
MyPetonline. Steve will introduce and educate visitors about
wildlife from across the globe, from snakes and spiders to creepy crawlies
and amphibians in two presentations a day in the Zoflora SuperTheatre.
Head to the Discover Reptiles zone, sponsored by ExoTerra, the market
leader in reptile products for the natural terrarium, where you can meet
all sorts of weird and wonderful creatures in seven exciting areas,
including the Snake Pit, the Lizard Lounge, the Chameleon Feeding
Station, Popular Pets, BugsWorld, Frogs andTurtles and theTortoise
Table. Here you can speak with the experts and learn all you need to
know if you are looking to take on a reptile as a pet and have your
questions answered if you are a current owner.
Talks will be given throughout the show by National Geographic and
BBC presenter Dr Mike Leahy, and you will get a chance to get up close
with many different snakes including ball (royal) pythons, boa constrictors
and corn snakes, plus a variety of lizards includingYemen chameleons,
Chinese water dragons, bearded dragons, leopard geckos and the crested
gecko.The talks will take place outside the Zoo Bus, brought to the show
by ExoTerra. Look out for the big red bus when you arrive!
With other amazing attractions including the SuperDogs Live show,
presented by Ben Fogle, rabbit show jumping, magnificent displays of
parrots and birds of prey, not to mention racing micro pigs, London Pet
Show offers a fun and educational Spring day out and you will leave with
everything you need to give your pet the best care possible.
* For more information please visit www.londonpetshow.co.uk
SeeTVpersonalitiesat
LondonPetShow2014
At a glance
WHEN: 9.30am – 5.00pm, Saturday
17th and Sunday 18th May 2013.
WHERE: Earls Court One, Warwick
Road, Earls Court, London SW5 9TA.
GETTING THERE: The venue is
served by excellent transport links
and is easily accessible by tube,
bus, car or train and with easy
access to a few mainline
stations. See below.
ADMISSION: Advance ticket
costs: Children £12 (under 5’s go
free) Adults £17, Seniors £14,
Family £54. Visit www.
londonpetshow.co.uk or call 0844
873 7332 and quote REPTILES FOR
15% OFF
Getting there
BY TUBE
NEAREST STATIONS: Earls Court
(Piccadilly and District lines) and West
Brompton (District line). Earls Court
One is directly opposite Earls Court
Station on Warwick Road (Exhibition
exit) which is on the District line.
BY NATIONAL RAIL
NEAREST STATION: West Brompton.
Southern trains run direct services to
West Brompton station. Direct
services run from Clapham Junction,
Gatwick Airport, East Croydon,
Watford Junction, Willesden Junction
and Stratford.
BY BUS
NEAREST STOPS: Warwick Road (for
Earls Court One): buses 74, 328, C1, C3.
6. T
hese frogs (Rheobatrachus silus and
Rheobatrachus vitellinus) represented
a closely related pair of species
amongst approximately 5280
different species of amphibian found on
the Australian continent. They appear to
have been easily overlooked, compared
with the multitudes of brightly coloured
and more charismatic anurans (tail-less
amphibians), from a part of the world
where caudates (newts and salamanders)
are unknown.
Indeed, for many years, no-one knew
these frogs actually existed. The southern
species (R.silus) was formally discovered
by science as late as 1973. Its northern
relative (R.vitellinus) was recognised even
later, in 1984.Yet both possessed an
amazing secret; an ability that would
shock the scientific world. The secret was
in the name they became known by…
that of gastric-brooding frogs.
A quirky reproductive
technique
Breeding in the case of these species
occurred initially in a similar manner to
that of most frogs. The male grasped the
female in a position known as amplexus,
and eggs were laid, being fertilised at this
point. There is evidence to suggest that
up to 40 eggs could be produced at a
single spawning. This is a fairly small
number in comparison to horned frogs
6 |Practical Reptile Keeping
James Brereton describes how an obscure Australian amphibian looks set to be the first-ever
species of its type brought back to life successfully in a laboratory, after having become extinct,
and discusses the significance of this breakthrough.
(Ceratophrys species) or the cane toad
(Rhinella marina), which may lay over a
thousand eggs at a time.
Now the story becomes complicated.
Instead of leaving her offspring to mature
independently, the female scooped up
the eggs and ate them. Cannibalism? Not
exactly! The eggs, it seems, were able to
switch off the gastric secretion of the
mother’s stomach. They contain a high
level of a hormone called prostaglandin:
it is this hormone that starts the
transformation. While hydrochloric acid is
no longer secreted,
the female frogs
would stop eating,
being unable to
digest their food. For
a full six weeks, the
small brown frog’s
stomach would be
transformed into an
incubator.
Inside the
stomach, the eggs
hatched into
tadpoles.
Interestingly, the
number of tadpoles
found within the
mother’s stomach
ranged from 21-26:
never quite as high
as the 40 eggs that
Back from beyond
THE BRINK?
the frog could technically produce. Why?
It was discovered by Professor Mike Tyler
of the University of Adelaide, who was a
scientist working with the species, that
the first eggs were digested before the
stomach could switch off gastric
secretion. But after 15 minutes, digestion
had stopped. The remaining eggs were
then free to develop.
Over the six weeks, the tadpoles
metamorphosed into tiny froglets. This
would have put considerable pressure on
the mother. Nearing the end of thistransformation. While hydrochloric acid is
digest their food. For
the mother. Nearing the end of this
Cane toads have thrived
since being introduced to
Australia. The biology of
gastric-brooding frogs
was very different.
†
7. MAY 2014 | 7
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8. ‘pregnancy’, the frog’s stomach would fill
so much of the body cavity that its lungs
were largely collapsed. Fortunately,
amphibians are also able to breathe
through their skin, and this allowed her to
survive and continue keeping her
offspring safe in her stomach.
At the end of this period, the gastric-
brooding frog gave birth. It was not an
elegant affair, and is best described as
‘propulsive vomiting’. Tiny, fully formed
froglets make a dramatic entrance into
the world, having avoided the dangers
faced by predator-plagued, free-living
tadpoles.
Interestingly, it was found that these
frogs could also be reared in
other environments. Professor
Tyler was able to raise the
tadpoles of this species in water
– quite successfully. A
translocation project of the eggs
into the stomach of a cane toad
was also successful – the
prostaglandin within the eggs
was able to turn its stomach into a
suitable incubator as well!
From a natural history
viewpoint, the gastric-brooding
From a medical viewpoint, these
amphibians were hugely important.
Unfortunately however, before they could
be fully studied, both species of
gastric-brooding frog became extinct.
Extinction is forever
The southern gastric-brooding frog was last
seen in the wild during 1981, just eight
years after being discovered. The species
had only occupied a small range in the
Conondale and Blackall mountains in
south-east Queensland.Thorough attempts
were made to find wild frogs, but none was
successful. Two years later, the last captive
individual died, making the species extinct.
Ironically, it was in 1983 that the
northern gastric-brooding frog was found,
and it exhibited the same quirky
reproductive mechanism. However, hopes
† Gastric-brooding frogs
only produced a small
number of eggs, in
comparison with most
other species.
of medical
investigations were
quickly quashed.
Within a year, it too
had become extinct,
making its
documented existence amongst the
shortest of any species.
At the time, it was unknown why both
had become extinct so rapidly. The
southern gastric-brooding frog had been
collected for scientific studies, but not in
sufficient numbers to cause its extinction.
The northern species was known to
science for just a short time, but research
suggested that it did not appear to be
threatened when first discovered.
Many threats have been proposed as
contributory factors leading to the demise
of both species of gastric-brooding frog,
including climate change, drought, and
excessive levels of UV (ultraviolet)
radiation. One further threat has more
recently been added to the list, and may
account for the rapid decrease in the frogs’
populations.
This is the amphibian fungus chytrid,
caused by Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis,
which has proved to be a highly contagious
disease that causes amphibian declines and
extinctions across the globe. Several
famous extinctions have occurred as a
result of this rapid-onset disease, including
the extirpation (localised extinction) of the
wild Panamanian golden frog (Atelopus
zeteki).
Chytrid, it has been suggested, has
caused declines in at least 287 amphibian
species. While it has not been proved that
chytrid caused the extinction of these two
unique Australian amphibians, it seems
likely that this deadly disease played a role,
partly because of the speed of their
disappearance.
An extinct species is of little use for study
purposes. The sudden loss of the gastric-
brooding frogs meant that the secrets of
this small brown amphibian had not been
fully unveiled before their sad demise.
Their potential medical
significance
The ability to turn off gastric acid secretion
is an area in need of serious investigation.
Understanding this chemical pathway, it
was believed, could revolutionise medicines
for heartburn and gastric ulcers, as well as
speeding up recovery from stomach
operations. It is now known that gastric
ulcers are caused largely by an acid-loving
bacterium, Helicobacter pylori, so antibiotics
represent the best treatment. However,
new medicines to treat acid reflux and
heartburn would be of immense value, and
understanding how the eggs and tadpoles
blocked the acid secretion in the frog’s
stomach could have been invaluable.
The gastric-brooding frogs were also
described as evolutionarily distinct. They
had no closely-related living species. The
extinction of these species was a huge loss,
especially as they were only just becoming
recognised and researched.
Interestingly, it was found that these
frogs were two fascinating species.
documented existence amongst the‡ In this very rare photo,
a young frog can be seen
emerging from the
female's stomach.
Photo copyright Michael J.
Tyler. Reproduced with
permission.
The Panamanian gold frog is
believed to be a victim of
chytridiomycosis.
Photo courtesy Brian Gratwicke.
8 |Practical Reptile Keeping
9. FEATURE | BACK FROM THE BRINK
An incredible comeback
In March 2013 however, scientists at the
University of New South Wales in
Australia made a startling
announcement. They had managed to
produce a gastric-brooding frog egg – a
living, developing egg. Rheobatrachus
silus, now extinct for 30 years, might be
making a very welcome return. But how?
The Lazarus project:
resurrecting the gastric-
brooding frog
When the species was still alive, frog
tissues had been deep-frozen by
scientists such as Professor Tyler. This was
more due to luck than foresight: any
threat to the wild frog populations had
not yet been considered, and
the tissues had simply been
frozen instead to help with
scientific studies. The possibility
of using such material to
resurrect species had not even
been even been considered as
a possibility back then. Indeed,
the novel that helped to
popularise this concept –
Michael Crichton’s Jurassic Park
– had not even been written!
Professor Michael Archer, a
scientist interested in reviving
extinct species, would soon
find out about these gastric-
brooding frog tissues. Initial studies were
commenced to check whether de-
extinction might be possible. The frog
tissues had not been treated with
cryo-preservatives, and so were unlikely
to be of use. However, it appeared some
frog cells were in a surprisingly good
state, enabling work to begin in an
attempt to revive the species. Thus, the
Lazarus project, as it is now known,
was born.
The revival of the gastric-brooding frog
involves a complex process called
somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT), in
which the nucleus of an amphibian egg is
removed and replaced with the nucleus
of an R. silus cell. The eggs used were
obtained from the distantly
related great barred frog
(Mixophyes fasciolatus).
Hundreds of eggs were
produced for the Lazarus
Project, but none seemed to
be dividing. After all, the
brooding frog tissue had
been frozen for at least 30
years. There were fears that
the project was unlikely to be
viable. But then amazingly, in
2013, a single egg began to
divide – from one single cell
into two, two cells into four,
and so on.
The Lazarus project team has yet to
produce an R. silus tadpole, but work is
progressing at a good rate. There are now
viable cell lines of this species available.
Given time and funding, the University of
New South Wales may therefore soon be
reviving an extinct species of frog – the
first successful project of this type
involving an extinct amphibian.
MAY 2014 | 9
The gold toad (Bufo periglenes)
from the Monte Verde Cloud Forest
Preserve has a somewhat similar
history to that of the gastic-
brooding frogs, only being
recorded for a very short time. It
was discovered in 1964, and up to
1987, over 1500 were documented.
Just 10 were seen in 1988
though, and not a single individual
has been recorded since May 15th
1989 in its very restricted known
area of distribution. It is presumed
extinct, as the result of chytrid
fungus, although officially, this
designation can only be used 50
years after the last recorded
sighting of a species. Source
USFWS/PD.
Another
victim
Professor Michael Archer,
a scientist interested in
reviving extinct species,
would soon find out about
these gastric-brooding
frog tissues. Initial studies
were commenced to check
whether de-extinction might
be possible.
†
10. 10 |Practical Reptile Keeping
FEATURE | BACK FROM THE BRINK
Implications of this work
The revival of the southern gastric-brooding frog may
be a game-changer in terms of extinction. Species
have been saved from the brink of extinction, but have
never been rescued from beyond the brink. Bringing
back extinct species has been attempted before, but
has never yet been successful.
Further research with the species may help the
medical profession to discover answers they had
begun to grapple with. For example, it is believed that
it was the eggs themselves that produced the
chemicals preventing the stomach from digesting
them. The frog itself was not turning off its
hydrochloric acid secretion: this was being directly
blocked by the eggs and tadpoles on a reversible
basis.
To bring back an extinct species also opens a
number of ethical questions too. Is the world still
suitable for this species? Can we find a place for this
animal to live once again?
For the gastric-brooding frog, the answer is a
resounding yes! The frog became extinct less than
forty years ago, and the small range that the species
originally lived in remains intact. And the reason that
these frogs went extinct – most likely chytrid – is
largely a disease spread by humans. For scientists at
the University of New South Wales, this is reason
enough to make every effort to resurrect the frog.
However, with the current chytrid crisis, many living
frog species are also at risk. On one hand, reviving an
already-extinct species of amphibian may distract from
the important task of saving species under threat.
On the other hand though, the revival of the
gastric-brooding frog may help to draw much-needed
attention to the plight of frogs. More people would be
drawn to visit zoological collections or attend events
to see the resurrected frog, and potentially, this should
even help to fund other conservation initiatives or
projects of this type.
In conclusion
The gastric-brooding frogs have a lot to offer the
modern world, from medical research opportunities to
natural history to a morale boost for conservation: a
species back from the dead during a time of mass
extinction is an important milestone. Regardless of the
opportunities this amphibian has to offer, some might
argue it is important to pull Rheobatrachus silus back
from extinction – especially if humans inadvertently
caused its decline. Work with the gastric-brooding frog
is far from over, but the Lazarus project is an incredibly
exciting development. After all, this small brown frog
may soon no longer be extinct! ✥
Perhaps the most potent symbol of extinction is of the dodo, which used to be
found on the island of Mauritius in the Indian Ocean, before becoming extinct
about 1662. This is high on the list of species that those involved in this field
would hope to recreate one day.
Scattered across the globe, there are teams of scientists currently working
on de-extinction projects. Last year, an organisation called Revive & Restore
set up the first de-extinction meetings, to draw together these projects of this
type. They include:-
■ Scientists working in the Pyrenees, who have come
very close to reviving the recently extinct bucardo
(Capra pyrenaica pyrenaica) – a type of mountain ibex.
Using the domestic goat as a surrogate, scientists were
able to produce a living calf of this extinct animal. The
calf did not survive long, but research is continuing to
achieve the birth of viable young.
■ In America, a team is carefully piecing together the
genome of the passenger pigeon (Ectopistes
migratorius): once the most abundant bird in North
America. Recombining the genome is like putting
together a puzzle consisting of 1.3 billion pieces: all in
similar shades of brown! Genetic material is gleaned
from old museum specimens, and is part of an attempt
to fully rewild this extinct bird in due course.
■ Reviving Mammuthus primigenius is a
mammoth task! The genome of this woolly
elephantoid species is purported to be over
5,000,000,000 base pairs in length. The code is
enormously fragmented. Despite these difficulties,
there are teams working on rebuilding the
genome: even operating in the depths of Siberia to
extract DNA from mammoth tissue preserved in
the permafrost. It’s going to take some time, but
potentially the mammoth might some day return
from extinction.
■ The quagga (Equus quagga quagga), a
horse-like creature with a zebra-esque striped
head and brown body, is steadily being revived
through a selective breeding project in South
Africa. Now known to be a subspecies of the
plain’s zebra, a revival is possible because
quagga DNA lives on within the zebra population.
■ Finally, the dodo, or Raphus cucullatus as it is
known to science, is sadly under-represented in
terms of museum specimens. The only feathered
remains – part of a beak and a foot – reside in
Oxford’s natural history museum. With so little
genetic material remaining, it seems unlikely the
dodo could be considered for de-extinction… yet.
Perhaps the most potent symbol of extinction is of the dodo, which used to be
Other de-extinction projects
Passenger pigeons. Louis Agassiz
Fuertes. Source PD.
The skeleton of the largest woolly mammoth
found in Europe, which was unearthed in
Siegsdorf, southern Germany. Source PD.
ATTACHED Bucardo. JosephWolf.
Source PD.
FEATURE | BACK FROM THE BRINK
Chytrid fungus, seen here at high magnification, is a major threat to
amphibian populations today. Photo courtesy MidgleyDJ at en.wikipedia.
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12. Until recently, herpetoculture in Australia has been lagging well behind
what has been occurring in USA and Europe, but things are changing
fast, as ChrisWilliams, who runs Snake Ranch there, explains.
12 | Practical Reptile Keeping
Newdevelopments
downunder…
AllphotoscourtesyofWayneAdcock,unlessotherwiseindicated.
Pied Stimson’s
python.
13. FEATURE | SNAKE RANCH
†
MAY 2014 | 13
R
estrictive laws surrounding the
keeping of native animals have
always hampered Australian reptile
enthusiasts. It was only about 17
years ago that keepers were legally able
to keep even the most common species.
Fortunately though, things have
improved, and trade among keepers
across many states is now allowed,
although it is still tightly regulated. As a
result, in New South Wales (NSW) alone,
we have gone from less than 1000
registered keepers back when reptile
keeping was legalised to about 35,000
today.
Unlike many other countries, Australia
restricts the importation and export of
fauna to major zoological collections and
other high level organisations. This
means that reptile hobbyists have to
work with what we have, without the
benefit of importing desirable animals to
assist the process. Amateur hobbyists can
only keep reptiles and amphibians native
to Australia, so as everyone is working
with just a relatively few species, we are
now making significant progress, in terms
of developing new morphs.
Rapid expansion
Another feature of the
hobby is that only recently
have expos started to be
held here. With a total
population of less than 25
million people spread
across this vast continent,
so Australian shows are still
quite modest events,
compared with those taking
place in Europe and the USA.
Averaging less than 5000 visitors,
these events nevertheless act as
invaluable meeting points for keepers
from across the country, enabling people
to share ideas easily.
The hobby received a significant boost
in 2010 when Brian and Lori Barczyk
attended the WILD Expo as guests of
honour. Brian’s insights into what is
involved in running his large collection
gave those present a clear understanding
of just how advanced the hobby outside
Australia had become.
Since Brian’s visit, Facebook’s
dominance over social media has surged
ahead, providing a previously unseen
window into collections around the
world. Until then www.aussiepythons.
com and www.australianreptileforum.
com were the major resources for the
sharing of ideas across the country.
Global social media has allowed many of
us to connect with keepers around the
world, so we can advance our
knowledge of genetics, breeding and
husbandry techniques more easily than
ever.
Snake Ranch and its aims
It is now almost a decade since Snake
Ranch was founded as Australia’s first
collection catering for the needs of
reptile enthusiasts across the country,
nd to ay, it remains the largest and
ost well-known collection here.
nake Ranch was originally the
rainchild of Dr Gavin
Bedford, who has
subsequently created
Crocosaurus Cove in
Darwin, and John Weigel,
owner of the Australian
Reptile Park. After eight
years of running the ranch,
hey wanted to move on, and
hat is when we stepped in.
Snake Ranch has always
focused on developing pure
locality-specific animals. Many
Australian species show huge diversity
across their ranges, and it’s this variation
that we want to work with. As beautiful
as some morphs are, their mixed heritage
is something that we will leave to others
to develop further. The carpet (Morelia
spilota) and Children’s python (Antaresia
childreni) complexes offer such huge
diversity from location to location that
the scope for working with these groups
alone is more than we will ever be able
to cover.
For example, in the case of Stimson’s
pythons (Antaresia stimsoni) from
Western Australia, we work with pure
lines from four different locations. All
have their own unique look, and our
selective breeding from
multigenerational animals is producing
outstanding results. When you include
lines from the Northern Territory,
Queensland, South Australia and NSW,
you can understand why some keepers
keep nothing else!
The first pied
After taking over the reigns of Snake
Ranch, we knew that our main priority
nevertheless was to focus on any new
morphs that happened to pop up within
our collections. Fortunately, we did not
have to wait long to hit the jackpot. Lady
luck was certainly on our side, as we
were able to obtain what is widely
considered to be the‘Holy Grail’of
morphs.
Australian herpetoculturists have
recognised this for quite some time, but
compared with those taking
place in Europe and the USA.
Averaging less than 5000 visitors,
these events nevertheless act as
collection catering for the needs of
reptile enthusiasts across the country,
and today, it remains the largest and
most well-known collection here.
Snake Ranch was originally the
brainchild of Dr Gavin
Bedford, who has
years of running the ranch,
they wanted to move on, and
that is when we stepped in.
Snake Ranch has always
focused on developing pure
locality-specific animals. Many
Australian species show huge diversity
ˆ T+ Children’s python.
Photo courtesy Hayden Lowry.
‡ Another pied
Stimson’s python. Note
the difference in
patterning compared with
the individual opposite.
An albino spotted python.
14. This means that a normally
black-coloured snake will
display variable white
patches. No two are the same.
t looks rather as if the snake has
had white paint tipped over it.
We’ve shown our pieds to family
and friends who cannot stand the sight
of any of our other snakes, including
albinos, but when they see the pieds,
they are both amazed and fascinated. It
works every time!
The breakthrough came during the
2012-2013 season, when a keeper from
Sydney bred pieds from a pair of normal
ooking Stimson’s pythons. He had been
in possession of these particular snakes
for quite a few years, but up until then,
he had never managed to breed them.
To his amazement, three out of the six
babies that were produced were almost
completely white. They all retained a
small amount of normal coloration, but
were well over 95% pure, baby powder
white. Finally, Australia had pieds!
patterns available within this genus, the
possibilities for selective breeding, and
the creation of new colour morphs are
now becoming endless.
As mentioned previously, Stimson’s
pythons alone display a huge variance in
colour and patterning across their range,
and it is our intention to focus our
breeding programmes on this species.
No doubt when our pieds are available,
we will see them bred with spotted,
pygmy and Children’s pythons, all of
which are close relatives of Stimmies, as
these pythons are often referred to here.
the random nature of genetics means
that knowing what you want is the easy
part. The hard part is waiting year after
year for that rare occurrence to take
place and chance is everything. I guess
it’s probably rather like winning the
lottery!
It was in the early 1990s that keepers
in the USA showed us what we were
waiting for…. all we had to do was wait,
and wait, and wait… for almost 30 years.
Actors have the Academy Awards,
cyclists have The Tour De France, while
Australian reptile enthusiasts aim for
pieds!
This is probably the most sought-after
mutation, because even after it occurs,
breeding well-marked, attractive pieds
is really a matter of luck. The
partial and entirely random loss
of dark skin pigmentation
creates a distinctive‘patchy’
appearance. Some
portions of the skin
display whatever the
pattern would be if it
This means that a normally
black-coloured snake will
display variable white
patches. No two are the same.
t looks rather as if the snake has
had white paint tipped over it.
We’ve shown our pieds to family
and friends who cannot stand the sight
of any of our other snakes, including
albinos, but when they see the pieds,
they are both amazed and fascinated. It
works every time!
The breakthrough came during the
2012-2013 season, when a keeper from
Sydney bred pieds from a pair of normal
ooking Stimson’s pythons. He had been
in possession of these particular snakes
for quite a few years, but up until then,
he had never managed to breed them.
To his amazement, three out of the six
babies that were produced were almost
completely white. They all retained a
small amount of normal coloration, but
were well over 95% pure, baby powder
white. Finally, Australia had pieds!
Australian reptile enthusiasts have
been seen pictures of some of the
amazing ball (royal) pythons being bred
in the USA and Europe. This was the first
species of python to display the pied
gene back in 1966, when a wild-
caught animal from Africa was
imported to the USA.
Unfortunately, not a great deal
was known about breeding
reptiles all those years ago, and it
was not until 1995 that an American
keeper commenced the first
breeding trials with a pied ball male
and several normal females. Two
years later, he produced the world’s
first captive-bred piebald pythons.
Fortunately for us here in Australia,
this mutation ultimately appeared
within the Antaresia
so many different colours and
display whatever the
pattern would be if it
were not for the white
coming in over the top.
ooking Stimson’s pythons. He had been
in possession of these particular snakes
for quite a few years, but up until then,
he had never managed to breed them.
To his amazement, three out of the six
babies that were produced were almost
completely white. They all retained a
small amount of normal coloration, but
were well over 95% pure, baby powder
Australian reptile enthusiasts have
been seen pictures of some of the
amazing ball (royal) pythons being bred
in the USA and Europe. This was the first
species of python to display the pied
was not until 1995 that an American
breeding trials with a pied ball male
years later, he produced the world’s
first captive-bred piebald pythons.
Fortunately for us here in Australia,
this mutation ultimately appeared
complex. With
so many different colours and
breeding well-marked, attractive pieds
is really a matter of luck. The
partial and entirely random loss
creates a distinctive‘patchy’
display variable white
patches. No two are the same.
t looks rather as if the snake has
had white paint tipped over it.
We’ve shown our pieds to family
and friends who cannot stand the sight
of any of our other snakes, including
‡ Wayne Adcock with
Snake Ranch’s melanistic
Darwin carpet python.
An albino spotted python.
Another albino spotted
python, contrasting with
the one shown top right.
† Chris Williams
from Snake Ranch
with a marbled
Children’s python.
ˆ Pied markings, as shown in the case of this
Stimson’s python, are highly variable.
15. A stunning woma
We are fortunate enough to be at the
cutting edge of several other projects
that are tremendously exciting as well.
There are many hobbyists around the
country working away on their own
particular breeding projects, some of
which are incredibly significant and will
doubtless enhance the hobby for all of
us.
The woma python (Aspidites ramsayi) is,
however, a species that has delivered
very little in the way of morphs over the
years. Line-breeding locale-specific
animals has produced some stunning-
looking snakes, but however, these have
all been polygenic traits, and have not
represented any major advances in
morph development.
One of the few projects in existence is
our black woma. As a hatchling, she
looked similar to her siblings, but over
the course of 18 months, her appearance
slowly changed to a stunning jet black
snake with a single orange stripe running
down the spine. Yet of all the female
womas in the collection, she was the only
one who decided that she was not going
to breed last year. I would happily
(almost) have forgone all the others
breeding, just to see what she would
produce.
Another enthusiast here has bred
some stunning hypo-looking animals for
the first time this year. Together, these
two projects make for an exciting future
for this delightful medium-sized python.
As yet, neither has been proved out, but
we eagerly await next season.
Black and white
Our so-called Black Princess, the
melanistic Darwin carpet python (Morelia
spilota variegata), continues to generate a
great deal of interest, and remains one of
our most coveted and talked about
projects. I can now say that things have
progressed, and I’m proud to say her
daughter produced a beautiful clutch
this season, so although progress is
slower than we would like, we are still
moving forward with this project.
Fortunately, this morph occurred in the
Darwin lineage at the same time as the
albino, so this particular species will have
an exciting future for quite some time.
Carpets of different colours
Line-breeding has produced some
sensational-looking carpets, particularly
in terms of coastals and jungles. Morphs
like tigers, tri-stripes and reduced pattern
are now well established. There is a
region in Queensland that is home to a
naturally occurring hypomelanistic
coastal carpet variant that selective
breeding has yet to rival. These stunning
snakes are obviously in high demand,
and we expect the results after a few
generations of line-breeding will be truly
stunning.
Albino spotted pythons
In recent years, our most popular morph †
MAY 2014 | 13
This unique photograph
shows three generations
of albino spotted pythons.
‡ Paradox albino
Darwin carpet python.
Woma pythons courtesy
Brad Regan.
16. has been without doubt the albino
spotted python (Antaresia maculosa).
These snakes display incredible variation
as hatchlings, with hobbyists being split
by which are the more attractive. We
have produced hatchlings that could
pass as leucistic if it were not for their red
eyes, and others with huge amounts of
bright yellows and apricots contrasting
against their white background colour.
This season has been the first time that
they have been offered to other
hobbyists in any substantial numbers,
and still the waiting list for these snakes
remains very long.
Like a number of morphs though, the
initial line has not been without its
problems. The previous owners of Snake
Ranch had experienced a high number of
kinked hatchlings. It is disappointing for
everyone when this type of problem
crops up, and the slow process of
outcrossing the line commences. We
discussed the problem of these
hatchlings with several breeders, and
they thought that it could be an
incubation problem, linked with
temperature, rather than necessarily
genetic.
Up until this year, the eggs had always
been kept at a constant 31.5°C (89°F)
during incubation. The decision was
made to reduce this figure significantly
down to 29°C (84°F) in the hope of fixing
the problem. The percentage of kinked
animals was reduced substantially. One
clutch in particular from a het x het
pairing produced eight healthy albinos
from nine eggs. Unfortunately though,
there were still kinked hatchlings in some
cases, so the issue is seemingly not just
temperature-related.
Albino olives
Another albino that remains a work in
progress is the majestic olive python
(Liasis olivaceus) from northern Australia.
Albinos of this species have been around
for some time, but they have yet to be
bred consistently in any real numbers.
Any animals that are available are in high
demand. We have several experienced
keepers all working with this particular
morph to establish robust lines.
Hopefully, these are not too far away!
Australia still has so many fantastic
reptiles and amphibians barely
represented in our collections, or not
nearly as readily available as they should
be. The northern colour phase of the
brown tree snake or night tiger (Boiga
irregularis), is a species we place at the
top of this list.
These stunning snakes are available
from time to time, but currently, nobody
has been breeding them here regularly,
or in decent numbers. We have amassed
quite a collection, and it is a species that
our head keeper has had success with in
the past. They are certainly one snake
that deserves to be better represented in
collections.
A morph in motorcycles
Another project in this category involves
our albino motorcycle frogs (Litoria
moorei). This species, in the same genus
as White’s tree frog (L. caerulea),
represents the first example of an albino
to have appeared in this particular group
of amphibians here in Australia.
When we first found out that a keeper
in Western Australia was breeding them,
we knew that we had to get hold of
some of these albinos and introduce
them to keepers in the eastern states.
They are already attracting a lot of
interest, and we hope to have them
available in the near future.
A reassessment of the scrub?
Peter Krauss has been a well-known
pioneer in the hobby here for over 40
years. His line of jungle carpet pythons
has been regarded by many as the best
in the country. Further proving that good
16 |Practical Reptile Keeping
‡ A clutch of albino olive
pythons hatching.
† Chris Williams points
to the newer tubs now
being used, alongside the
older cages that are being
phased out. The tubs in
use can be seen below.
17. Want to know more?
Chris’s new book The Snake Ranch
Guide to Reptile Care is now
available, extending to 182 pages,
and will be very valuable if you
keep Australian species. It can be
ordered direct through the Snake
Ranch website at http://www.
snakeranch.com.au/ where you
can also find out more about the
snakes and lizards that are being
bred there.
things happen to good people, Peter had
the excellent fortune of coming into
possession of the only albino scrub
python (Morelia amethistina) in any
collection.
Regularly attaining lengths in excess of
4.3m (14ft), this species is a genuine giant
of the snake world. It has gained a
reputation as a snappy species, and one
often overlooked in collections as a result
- much in the same way that reticulated
pythons were regarded until about 20
years ago. This individual may hopefully
trigger the start of greater appreciation of
these undervalued snakes and will result
in individuals that are more amenable to
handling.
A venomous morph
Here at Snake Ranch, we caused an
internet sensation last year when we
showed one of a handful of albino
red-bellied black snakes (Pseudechis
porphyriacus) in captivity. The snow-white
dorsal coloration contrasts beautifully in
this case with the rich pink ventral scales
on these snakes.
To date, nobody who is in possession
of any of these snakes has managed to
produce offspring, but hopefully, success
will not be too far away. The striking
appearance and generally placid
demeanour of these albinos would
undoubtedly prove to be a very popular
combination amongst those interested in
keeping venomous snakes.
Introducing the
Oenpelli python
As enthusiasts here are limited to
keeping only native species, any new
addition to the list is met with huge
excitement and anticipation. Not since
2002 when John Weigel first released the
rough-scaled python (Morelia carinata)
to the hobby has a new species become
available. However, Dr Gavin Bedford has
spent years working with the Northern
Territory government and Aboriginal
landowners for permission to collect the
incredibly rare Oenpelli python (Morelia
oenpelliensis) from the wild, in order to
establish a captive breeding programme.
Collecting these snakes proved to be
almost as difficult as obtaining the
permits themselves! Finally though, the
planets aligned and three of the five
animals collected were all found within
the space of a week. The first two had
taken nearly three years to locate, so this
stroke of luck was a remarkable
achievement, and propelled the project
forward. Gavin was also responsible for
introducing the albino olive python to
the hobby, so the project is in good
hands.
Dedicated keepers across the country
are making huge progress, working with
not only new morphs and species, but
evolving new techniques as well. The
hobby here in Australia is at an incredibly
exciting stage, and we are all thrilled to
be part of it. ✥
MAY 2014 | 17
An albino motorcycle frog.
Half-scaled death adder. Photo courtesy EricVanderduys.
‡ Junior Snake Ranch keeper James Adcock with two albino olive pythons.
18. 18 |Practical Reptile Keeping
Adam Bland, from Manchester Museum,
profiles one of the most striking tree frogs
found on this continent, which offers
great potential as a vivarium subject.tigerstigers
Introducingthe
tigersofSouthAmerica
I
n terms of big cats, the jaguar rules the
South American rainforests, but
nevertheless, if you look closely enough,
you may find that there are tigers
lurking in these jungles too. They come in
the form of a tree frog with spectacularly
striped patterning, which may be
encountered on vegetation above small
pools, ponds and swamps; the only clue as
to its presence is the abrupt call emitted
by competing males attempting to attract
a female.
The tiger-legged monkey frog
(Phyllomedusa tomopterna) is a medium-
sized nocturnal tree frog that occurs
throughout lowland forests up to an
altitude of about 500m (1640ft). It can be
encountered over a large region of
northern South America, from Ecuador
across to Brazil, with the southerly part of its
range extending into northern Bolivia.
Despite this large range, isolated
populations are threatened due to
deforestation, which causes the
fragmentation of suitable habitat, making
these frogs rare in badly affected areas, but
locally common elsewhere where there are
well-managed reserves.
Its relatives
This enigmatic tree frog belongs to the
sub-family Phyllomedusinae; this sub-family
includes three groups of frogs: Agalychnis,
Cruziohyla and Phyllomedusa, with mem-
bers of the latter genus being commonly
referred to as monkey frogs. This name
originates from the fact that they do not
possess any webbing between the digits
of their hands and feet. With the exception
of one species, they are arboreal, and use
their grasping hands to climb methodi-
cally, walking along branches and through
ˆ The patterning of the
barring on the flanks of
these frogs is individual.
vegetation.
The best-known members of this group
include the giant waxy monkey frog
(Phyllomedusa bicolor) and the Chacoan
waxy monkey frog (Phyllomedusa sauvagii);
these few species may appear in the pet
trade every so often, but in fact, there are
31 recognised species of Phyllomedusa.
Allphotoscourtesyoftheauthorexcept18t,19bl,20t&c,21bl&bc,&22bl.
19. FEATURE | TREE FROGS
The leaf frogs, forming the genus Agalychnis, belong to
the same sub-family as members of the Phyllomedusa
genus. The popular red-eyed tree frog is shown here.
MAY 2014 | 19
†
No species is yet being captive-bred
consistently, and so the majority of those
that are intermittently offered for sale are
unfortunately likely to be wild-caught.
The tiger-legged monkey frog may
easily be mistaken as a member of the
closely related genus of Agalychis, which
includes the popular and widely kept
red-eyed tree frog (A. callidryas). This is
because unlike the majority of monkey
frogs however, which perch upon a branch
when at rest during the day, this species
lies flat against the surface of a leaf
concealing its bright flank and leg
colouration. Such behaviour is presumed
to serve as a flash warning and momentary
distraction to any predator that disturbs it,
allowing the frog to escape.
Upon closer inspection and observation
though, it becomes clear that the
tiger-legged tree frog is a true member of
Phyllomedusa. These amphibians lack
webbing between their digits, as
mentioned, and they only tend to jump
when startled, much preferring to climb
among the branches. In addition, they may
occasionally be seen‘waxing’the skin with
their hands and feet. This is a characteristic
most often observed in Chacoan waxy
monkey frogs, as they are known to
produce a substance from glands under
the skin that they spread over their body
using their hands and feet. This helps to
eggs or in some instances, join two leaves
together and form a kind of nest. The
eggs are laid within the leaves and the
frogs use a type of jelly mass to seal the
nest shut. They even go as far as to lay
empty egg capsules containing only
water in between fertile eggs. These can
rupture and hydrate the developing
tadpoles, should the nest become too dry.
Concealing the eggs within a nest such
as this protects them from drying out in
direct sunlight and also from almost
all predators; and this is exactly
the behaviour displayed by the
tiger-legged monkey frog
uring spawning. When
he time comes and the
adpoles are ready to
hatch, usually between
10-14 days later, the
remaining water
capsules rupture which
in turn aids the
tadpoles to break free of
heir eggs. They then fall
p
protect them from drying
out in the sun, and also
serves to keep their skin
clean.
Distinctive
spawning habits
The most defining
characteristic, however,
that reveals this
amphibian is most
definitely a member of
Phyllomedusa is evident during
the breeding period. All
phyllomedusines lay their eggs out of
water, attached to leaves or roots that
overhang temporary pools, ponds and
occasionally streams. This strategy
protects the eggs from the countless
aquatic predators that would feed on
them if laid directly into the water.
The eggs of leaf frogs are usually
deposited on the underside of leaves,
where the humid air of the rainforest
prevents them from drying out. Their
spawn is not particularly well concealed
though, and so it is still vulnerable to
predation by many insects and also some
species of snake.
When monkey frogs spawn, however,
they do so out of water, but they take
protecting the eggs to the next level of
care. They will fold the leaf around the
as this protects them from drying out in
direct sunlight and also from almost
all predators; and this is exactly
the behaviour displayed by the
tiger-legged monkey frog
during spawning. When
the time comes and the
tadpoles are ready to
tadpoles to break free of
their eggs. They then fall
from the nest into the
water below, where they
continue their development.
protect them from drying
is evident during
phyllomedusines lay their eggs out of
The Chacoan waxy monkey frog
is well known for its tolerance of
high temperatures and dry
conditions, protecting itself by
producing a secretion from
glands under the skin.
The giant waxy monkey frog
(Phyllomedusabicolor)is the largest
member of the genus, and one of the
largest species of tree frog in the world.
Photo courtesy of the author.
The nest of the
Trinidadian monkey frog
(Phyllomedusa trinitatis).
Here the empty egg
capsules produced to
protect fertile eggs can
clearly be seen.
Photo courtesy of the author.
The bright striped markings of this
species are most likely used as a
flash warning to predators.
Photo courtesy of the author.
20. FEATURE | TREE FROGS
Starting out
As far as keeping this species is
concerned, there is no reason to believe
that tiger-legged monkey frogs are
particularly difficult to maintain, and they
will even reproduce successfully under
suitable conditions. The legal exportation
of these tree frogs still takes places on a
semi-regular basis but nonetheless,
obtaining animals from a reliable source is
a must. When dealing with imported,
wild-collected stock, which is often the
only source, they must be well-
established, healthy animals, to minimise
the risk of problems.
The following guidelines are based on
my own experiences keeping and
breeding this species. Vivarium size is
dependant on the age and number of
frogs that are to be kept, but a group of
3-4 adult individuals can be maintained
problem-free within a cube vivarium with
dimensions of 61cm (24in) in terms of
height, width and depth.
Vivarium conditions
A ventilated glass enclosure is the best
choice, and temperatures within should
range between 22-28°C (72-82°F). As
mentioned these frogs have the capability
to withstand higher temperatures but
keeping them at the top end of their
temperature range should be avoided for
any length of time; high temperature
spikes are only tolerated at best, and
the aim should be to maintain them
at the middle of this temperature
range.
A 12 hour light/12 hour
darkness cycle is ideal and the
use of UV (ultraviolet) lighting
can only be beneficial to their
metabolism and overall health.
These frogs rest in full daylight on
the topside of leaves; my own
group are provided with Arcadia 6%
T5 lighting. They do not thrive under
wet conditions; the humidity in their
vivarium needs to be maintained at
around 60%, with access to a water bowl
and a light misting in the evening usually
being all that is required for this purpose.
Housing multiple males and mixed
sexes within the same vivarium is not
problematic outside of the breeding
period, in my experience. The humidity
needs to be lowered, in order to ensure
that mating will not be triggered, and so
in turn, competitive behaviour and
harassment of females by would-be mates
is greatly reduced.
Keeping these frogs, and indeed, almost
all phyllomedusines, in more humid
surroundings gives them only half of the
cue that they require to breed. This
usually results in these amphibians then
spending all night competing and
preparing to breed yet without any
suitable spawning site being available.
Over time, individuals kept under these
conditions will rapidly lose body condition
and are likely to succumb to bacterial
infections.
Maintenance
Although keeping this species in a natural
planted vivarium with a soil substrate also
works, I prefer to accommodate them
without any substrate. Instead, they are
provided with a section of damp, un-
bleached paper towel with a water bowl
on the floor. This style of vivarium may
‡ Above: These
frogs are arboreal,
and can grip
branches well, as
well as resting on
the leaves.
Left: The frog seen
here is a close
relative of the
tiger-legged monkey
frog, known as the
orange-legged monkey
frog (P. hypochondrialis).
to withstand higher temperatures but
keeping them at the top end of their
temperature range should be avoided for
any length of time; high temperature
spikes are only tolerated at best, and
the aim should be to maintain them
group are provided with Arcadia 6%
T5 lighting. They do not thrive under
‡ Above: These
frogs are arboreal,
and can grip
relative of the
tiger-legged monkey
frog, known as the
orange-legged monkey
frog (P. hypochondrialis)
20 |Practical Reptile Keeping
… The colouration of
these frogs provides them
with excellent
camouflage.
21. S
them easy for the frogs to find.
The leaves of these plants also provide
resting areas and shelters for the frogs,
with their stems providing additional
walkways for their prey as well. Food
should be offered up to 3-4 times per
week, with at least 2-3 food items being
allowed per individual. All live food
should be gut-loaded (being
kept on a food rich in vitamins
and minerals to improve its
nutritional value), and also
needs to be dusted with a
vitamin and mineral
supplement.
Be prepared to
experiment too, in the
terms of the types of
ivefood used. Do not stick
just to crickets. Feeders can
be fixed off the ground,
encouraging the frogs to try
sampling items such as
calciworms, which represent a
more balanced food, compared with
Signs of spawning
Keeping tiger-legged monkey frogs under
these conditions will keep them in good
health, in my experience, and then in due
course, they should come into breeding
condition. Pairs are easily recognised, as
females are larger than males, and they
also possess a slightly wider head. Only
the males call, and they are roughly two-
thirds the size of a female.
Physical changes can be observed too.
Signs that the sexes are coming into
breeding condition are dark nuptial pads
(the small brown to black area present on
the outside of the thumb) in the case of
males, while females begin to assume a
more rounded appearance, as they start
to swell with eggs. If breeding is to be
attempted, and the frogs are healthy, they
should then be moved to a rain chamber
for this purpose..
This enclosure needs to be slightly
larger than their regular vivarium, in order
† Small cheese plant.
These can grow quite
large, so you need to hunt
out a relatively small
specimen for the frogs’
vivarium.
… Peace lilies can have
attractive white blooms.
look bare and perhaps clinical, but I find it
is much easier to clean and the frogs are
also able to locate their food much easier.
The paper towel is replaced daily as is
the water, any waste is also removed and
a quick cleaning of all of the glass
surfaces in the vivarium is also
performed daily. This can be
undertaken without
disturbing the frogs as
they rest upon leaves
during this period, and
it also gives the
opportunity for close
observation,
enabling any
possible health
problems to be
recognised as soon as
possible.
Keeping these frogs
in enclosures that require
less maintenance can easily
allow what may begin as a
minor health issue to go
worsened and are much more obvious.
This particularly applies in the case of eye
infections, which are relatively common
and can easily go undetected at first.
Planting and feeding
The rest of the vivarium is furnished with
live plants such as the cheese plant
(Monstera deliciosa), peace lily
(Spathiphyllum) and umbrella plant
(Cyperus). In addition, lots of branches
should be provided as climbing areas for
these arboreal amphibians. Branches
need to be positioned from ground level
up to the top of the enclosure. This then
provides the frogs with feeding
opportunities as crickets on the ground
soon climb up these walkways, making
should be offered up to 3-4 times per
week, with at least 2-3 food items being
allowed per individual. All live food
should be gut-loaded (being
kept on a food rich in vitamins
and minerals to improve its
nutritional value), and also
needs to be dusted with a
ivefood used. Do not stick
just to crickets. Feeders can
be fixed off the ground,
encouraging the frogs to try
sampling items such as
calciworms, which represent a
more balanced food, compared with
crickets.
a quick cleaning of all of the glass
surfaces in the vivarium is also
performed daily. This can be
during this period, and
Keeping these frogs
in enclosures that require
less maintenance can easily
allow what may begin as a
minor health issue to go
unnoticed until the signs have
ˆ As in the case of other
monkey frogs, this
species uses a
hand-over-hand method
of walking, rather than
jumping. Photo courtesy of
the author.
1
2
3
4
† Images right:
1: A nest of tiger-legged
monkey frog eggs,
wrapped in the leaf of a
cheese plant. Individual
clutches may contain as
many as 70 eggs.
2: A well-developed
tiger-legged monkey frog
tadpole.
3: Metamorphosing
tiger-legged monkey
frogs display the typical
monkey frog walking
behaviour immediately
after leaving the water.
4: After emerging from
the water, the skin rapidly
changes colour as the tail
is absorbed, and during
this relatively brief
period, the young frogs
do not feed.
All above photos courtesy of
the author.
†
22. FEATURE | TREE FROGS
to provide males with some extra space
between each other when they begin to
call and compete to mate with a female. It
should also be heavily planted with leaves
that would provide good opportunity for
producing a nest; the correct selection of
leaves is crucial as even if the frogs are
ready to spawn, they may fail to do so if
they cannot find an appropriate leaf;
cheese plants and pothos work well.
The use of water
Tiger-legged monkey frogs are not very
capable swimmers, so branches from
ground level are also important. If a frog
falls into the water below, so it will be able
to climb out easily, within a reasonable
amount of time. One thing to make clear
though is that providing a rain chamber
does not simply entail placing the animals
in a much wetter tank, where the
humidity is increased by using a misting
system.
What needs to happen is that the rain
should fall as droplets. This can be easily
and simply achieved by using a basic
aquarium pump with pipes connected
that lead up and along the top of the
chamber. The holes in the top pipe send
out the water effectively as droplets of rain
when the pump is switched on, falling
down on to the frogs.
The base of the chamber itself should
be filled with up to 7.5cm (3in) of water at
this point, as the frogs will only spawn if
they are above a pool. Using more males
than females is also beneficial, with
competition between males encouraging
spawning behaviour. Try to aim for a two
male:one female ratio, as this will be more
successful than the other way around.
Once they are moved into the rain
chamber, the frogs should not be fed.
Assuming that they are fit enough to
breed, then they should be healthy
enough to go 4-5 days without food.
Putting live foods into a rain chamber
usually just results in drowned insects that
foul the water rapidly, endangering the
health of the amphibians.
The rain chamber
The initial two days within a rain chamber
should act as a slight cooling period
where the temperature is maintained at
the lower limit and the water in the base
remains at room temperature. After this
period, a water heater should be used to
warm the water to approximately 25°C
(77°F), coinciding with the start of the rain.
Protect the aquarium heaterstat with a
special heater guard, (as sold for fish
keeping), to prevent the frogs from
burning themselves, although they will
normally spend no time in the water.
Warming the water rapidly changes the
environment for the frogs, usually
resulting in spawning behaviour. Rainfall
simulation is required during the day; its
only purpose is to trigger a breeding
response in the frogs. They do not
particularly like it, and more often than
not, they generally seek out cover when
the water begins to fall.
In my experience, these steps are
usually enough to get the frogs to spawn,
if you are lucky! Nests can easily go
unnoticed though, so care should be
taken to find a nest before turning the rain
back on in the morning. It may take three
spawning.
If no eggs are produced after this time,
the frogs should be removed from the rain
chamber and placed back into their usual
quarters. Be patient, as they may
sometimes not be quite ready, and so try
again some weeks later. Being in the rain
chamber environment, and the whole
breeding process is a stressful time for the
frogs, so it is better to curb this period if
nothing is happening, and ensure they
retain condition for another attempt later.
Hatching and rearing
The eggs can be suspended over the
water until they hatch, with the tadpoles
dropping down into the aquarium. Water
temperatures of 24-27°C (75-81°F) should
be maintained and the tadpoles will eat
almost any tropical fish foods. Take care
not to overfeed them though, as this
could lead to a fatal fall-off in water
quality, and when carrying out partial
water changes, always use a suitable
dechlorinator and water conditioner that
will remove harmful chlorine-based
products present in tap water.
Metamorphosis takes place after
approximately 2 -3 months depending on
water temperature. Froglets should be
cared for as with the parents, with the tank
size increasing according to their growth,
and they need to be fed initially on smaller
livefoods.
In summary
The tiger-legged monkey frog is an
amazing tree frog, not just because of its
looks, but also because these amphibians
are quite mesmerising to observe and
display a range of interesting behaviours.
They make a fine addition to any
amphibian collection and are not as
difficult to maintain as some may think.
With any luck, more keepers will be
capable of producing healthy, captive-bred
animals instead of relying on imports, and
make this a species that is more commonly
kept by amphibian enthusiasts. ✥
or four days of rain to produce a successful Plan a visit
If you are in the north-west, why not
visit the museum and see the
collection? Admission is free.
Where: The Manchester Museum, The
University of Manchester, Oxford
Road, Manchester M13 9PL.
When: Open daily, including most
Bank Holidays, from 10am-
5pm. Closed: 24-26 Dec, 1 Jan.
Webpage: http://www.museum.
manchester.ac.uk/collection/
liveanimals/
ˆ Adult males do not
grow as large as females,
as shown by this mating
pair photographed in
Ecuador.
‡ At rest, the
tiger-legged monkey frog
closely resembles
members of the leaf frog
genus Agalychnis.
Photo courtesy of the author.
24. 24 |Practical Reptile Keeping
T
ortoises are funny animals. Found
over most of the warmer areas of the
world, with the notable exception of
Australia, they inhabit a huge range
of habitats from arid deserts to tropical
forests and consequently have a wide
range of diets. They are pretty much
exclusively vegetarian, but some will eat
grasses, others leafy weeds while a small
number buck the trend and will scavenge
or hunt invertebrates, although admittedly
the fastest thing they can catch is
probably likely to be a snail!
Add to this the fact that they are
trapped inside a shell that requires large
amounts of calcium for its construction
and maintenance and creates all sorts of
issues for thermoregulation, and you have
an animal that has exacting requirements
for the keeper. Unsurprisingly therefore,
one of the most important, difficult and
widely discussed areas of tortoise
husbandry is that of their nutritional
requirements.
Popular choices
The main types of tortoise kept in the
UK are Hermann’s (Testudo hermanni);
the Mediterranean spur-thighed (T.
graeca); marginated (T. marginata) and
Horsfield’s tortoises (Agrionemys (formerly
Testudo) horsfieldii). Although originating
from different areas, with Horsfield’s
tortoise being found in the steppes of
European Russia extending into Asia and
the other three occurring around the
Mediterranean, they share broadly similar
nutritional needs.
As a basic rule, all of these species must
have a diet that is low in protein,
carbohydrate and sugars, and high in fibre
and calcium. As with most things though,
it is never as easy as it first seems, and
providing a suitable diet for tortoises is a
challenge.
Changing lifestyles
In order to appreciate their needs better,
we need to consider their natural habitat,
and the foods they would encounter
there. If you have been to southern
Europe on holiday, you will know that
during the summer, this area is hot and
dry, with little or no green vegetation. At
this stage, it is also relatively rare to see
tortoises out and about, and certainly not
during the heat of the day.
The reason for this is that during July
and August, the tortoises are aestivating,
hiding away to avoid temperatures that
are too hot even for them. If it does rain
then, they may suddenly become active,
emerging to feed and more importantly,
to drink. They may also come out briefly
from their hiding places during the early
morning or late evening, and I have even
seen them active an hour after sunset in
total darkness. Aestivation is not like
hibernation though, and during this
period, their body processes remain active
even when the tortoise is not moving
around.
During the spring and autumn though,
it is a very different situation. As they
Dave Perry explains the dietary requirements of
Mediterranean and Horsfield’s tortoises, based on their
lifestyle, and how to feed this group of reptiles correctly.
‡ A marginated tortoise
in its Greek homeland.
BOUNCING
WITH
HEALTH
25. FEATURE | TORTOISE HEALTH
emerge from hibernation, tortoises are
exposed to warm temperatures that allow
them to be active throughout the day, and
there is plenty of vegetation to eat, in
terms of lush spring growth. At this stage,
the animals are in need of food, as they
make up for loss of weight during
hibernation, and they feed actively.
Gradually, as the season progresses, so
the composition of the plant material
changes. It dries out and cellulose levels
build up, causing the vegetation to
become tougher as time passes. By the
time that we start arriving for our summer
holidays, their food has dried out to an
almost inedible state, and the tortoises
have retreated from the intense sun, as the
landscape becomes baked.
Finally, autumn returns and with it
come the rains once more. Plants start to
grow again as the temperature starts to
dip again too, and the tortoises emerge to
take advantage of the fresh growth, eating
readily in a final push to prepare for
hibernation. Although not a main part of
their diet, if they come across fallen fruit in
the autumn, then they will eat it. In the
wild, this is the only time that this group of
tortoises will eat food high in sugars and it
is only available for a short period.
Feeding habits
Even when fresh, lush food is available
though, wild tortoises will purposefully
‡ The vegetation in the
areas where these
tortoises originate varies
significantly through the
year.
choose to eat a
mixture of this soft,
fresh growth and
tougher, more fibrous
material. While the
lush plants on offer
may not be high in fibre,
an individual will self-
select food that maintains
the low protein/high fibre
balance of its overall diet.
So much for the low protein and
high fibre, but where does the high level
of calcium in their diet come from? For
this, we have to look at the geology of
land where these tortoises are to be
found. Almost without fail, the underlying
rocks are rich in calcium. This accumulates
in the soil and is then taken up by the
growing plants, giving them a naturally
high calcium level that is then passed to
the animals that eat them. Additional
calcium is available by eating small
pieces of rock directly from the soil
surface.
Tortoises also eat in a
unique way. They roam over
they go, taking in small
amounts of a wide variety
of plants. They do not
chew their food, but
instead bite off chunks of
t
as well as the overall fibre content of the
diet, increase the speed of the food as it
travels through the gut.
may not be high in fibre,
select food that maintains
the low protein/high fibre
balance of its overall diet.
So much for the low protein and
high calcium level that is then passed to
the animals that eat them. Additional
calcium is available by eating small
pieces of rock directly from the soil
surface.
Tortoises also eat in a
unique way. They roam over
large distances grazing as
plants and swallow them
whole. This has profound
implications for the way the
food is digested. The large
lumps slow down digestion,
reducing the surface area that
enzymes and bacteria can act on, while
the long un-chewed pieces of raw fibre,
‡ Tortoises will burrow
at times during the year,
to escape the worst of the
heat or the cold.
A Horsfield’s
tortoise tucks in to
its food.
†
26. Many plants that are readily available
are very poor in terms of nutrients and
although not bad in the true sense, simply
do not contain enough nutrient value to
be useful as a large part of the diet. Things
like lettuce and other quick grown salad
vegetables fall into this group, along with
cucumber. They contain lots of water, but
very little in the way of vitamin, mineral or
fibre content.
These“supermarket”items should not
be discounted though, as they can be
used as part of a wider diet, but they
should never be relied upon as a staple
food for tortoises. They do have the
benefits of being highly palatable and
their high water content can be useful for
getting fluid into an animal. Cucumber is
particularly useful as most Mediterranean
tortoises seem to find it
irresistible and it is great
for
So, you can see the quantity and quality
of the food a tortoise feeds on in the wild
changes throughout the year. When
keeping tortoises, we need to aim to
reproduce this state of affairs as closely as
possible, and that’s a hard task. While it is
difficult to recreate the cyclical changes in
food quality seen in the wild though, we
can offer a suitable diet that fulfils the
tortoise’s main requirements by following a
few simple rules. So, where to start? The
species we are thinking about are 100%
vegetarian, so let’s start by looking at the
plant material that we feed them.
Make sure they eat
their greens...
The important word here is“plant”. In
the past, there have been all sorts of
food recommended for Mediterranean
tortoises ranging from dog food and
hard-boiled eggs right through to pizza
and table scraps. The first rule is simple.
Mediterranean tortoises are vegetarian,
100%, no exceptions. OK, they can eat
the odd caterpillar by mistake, and may
even eat snail shells that will sometimes be
occupied, but they are not predators - they
do not rush around chasing down prey,
ever! So you should never feed animal
protein to a Mediterranean tortoise in
any form. Apart from the fact that this will
introduce a high level of protein to the diet,
and animal protein
is the worst type for
a tortoise, it also
contains saturated
fat which is another
big“no, no”for these reptiles.
That’s not to say all plants are
good of course, and there are many
plants that you should not feed to
tortoises, for a variety of reasons.
Some are simply toxic and will make
tortoises sick and can even kill them.
There are the obvious ones, such as
deadly nightshade for example, and the
not so obvious – notably any bulbs.
Daffodils are not widely regarded as a
poisonous plant, but they can be deadly if
consumed by a tortoise.
Other plants are perfectly edible, and
can even be used as part of a good
tortoise diet in small amounts, but contain
certain chemicals that can cause
problems. A good example of this would
be plants that belong to the Brassica
family – meaning cabbage of any type.
These plants contain constituents called
goitrogens, which, if fed in large
quantities, can block the absorption of
iodine and so interfere with the
functioning of the thyroid glands that
help to regulate the tortoise’s
metabolism. Legumes (pea family) also
do this and are high in plant protein.
calcium being freely absorbed from the
intestinal tract.
All types of daffodils
and other spring
bulbs growing in a garden
can be poisonous, if eaten
by a tortoise.
tortoises seem to find it
irresistible and it is great
for
Spinach contains phytates, which prevent
Cabbages are not an
ideal food for tortoises.
The wild habitat of
Horsfield's tortoise.
27. FEATURE | TORTOISE HEALTH
getting medication or supplements into a
reluctant feeder. It’s rather like hiding a
child’s tablet in a spoonful of ice cream!
Ideal choices
So, just what are the best plants? Well,
firstly as long as a plant is not truly toxic,
then including it in a mixed diet is not
going to cause an issue. A little bit of
cucumber, lettuce or spinach will not
cause significant harm, and can provide
variety and water. It also has the
advantage of being available all year
round which can be useful in the winter.
JUNE 2013 | 27
‡ Bright eyes and clear
nostrils are signs of good
health in tortoises of all
ages.
Tray salads or
leaves contain little
of actual nutrient
value.
The important point though is that it
should only form a small part of the diet,
ideally less than 5-10%.
It’s the remaining portion that is
important to get absolutely right. We
know that tortoises wander around in the
wild, grazing as they go, and so using a
range of different plants for this
purpose is vital. Offering small
amounts of suitable plants mixed
together gives variety and
appeals to tortoises, in addition to
providing a wide range of minor
nutrients that will vary from plant
to plant. And what makes a plant
suitable? Ideally it needs to be
growing in the wild and should be
tough!
There is a huge range of weeds and
garden plants that can be used to form
the bulk of the food given to these types
of tortoises. Dandelion, sow thistle,
chickweed, mallow, bindweed, clover,
plantain – this is just the start of the list!
Add to this the cultivated garden plants
you can use and there really is no reason
not to be able to provide a good basic
diet.
It’s the remaining portion that is
important to get absolutely right. We
know that tortoises wander around in the
wild, grazing as they go, and so using a
range of different plants for this
purpose is vital. Offering small
amounts of suitable plants mixed
suitable? Ideally it needs to be
growing in the wild and should be
tough!
There is a huge range of weeds and
garden plants that can be used to form
the bulk of the food given to these typesthe bulk of the food given to these types
of tortoises. Dandelion, sow thistle,
‡ Tortoise are natural
browsers, eating as
they move through their
habitat.
†
28. 28 |Practical Reptile Keeping
It’s just a case of learning to recognise
the various plant types and being willing
to take the time to forage for them. You
can even grow them specifically as food,
either in the form of garden plants or wild
flowers (weeds). Many pet shops supply
seed mixes specifically designed for
tortoises for you to cultivate at home, and
you can even buy tortoise weed feed
growing kits which contain everything
you need to grow your own supplies.
And when you feed your tortoise, don’t
carefully chop all the food up into small,
easy-to-eat pieces, but instead put in
whole leaves, stems and flowers for them.
Tortoises are rippers and shredders, using
their horny beak and claws to pull off large
pieces of food to eat whole. This
encourages natural behaviour, helps to
keep their claws and beaks worn down
and also maintains the health of their
digestive tract.
Don’t forget the calcium!
With a large dish of whole, healthy, wild
plants, your tortoise will benefit
accordingly, but this is not the end of the
story. Remember the calcium-rich
landscape and plants where you would
find Mediterranean tortoises in the wild?
Some plants from these areas have
Pictured:
1: Bindweed often grows up round fences.
2: Sow thistle is rather like a dandelion, but the leaves
tend to be more shiny and may be slightly prickly.
3: Mallow is often cultivated in gardens.
4: Red and white forms of clover may grow in your lawn.
5: Greater plantain is reasonably inconspicuous until the
distinctive seedhead emerges.
6: Chickweed is eaten readily by tortoises.
Did you know?
Dandelions contain proportionately
more calcium than a glass of milk.
3
2
1 4
5
6
†
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30. extremely high
calcium levels, and
just as importantly,
low phosphorus as
well; both of which
are vital aspects in
a tortoise’s diet.
Plants grown in
the UK rarely, if ever, accumulate calcium
to the same level and so supplementation
is necessary. This is best achieved by
dusting the food with a pure
calcium, phosphorus-free
supplement such as Calci Dust.
This can be done at every feed,
because providing excess
calcium will not cause a
problem, providing that the
animals are not given an
excessive oral
supplementation of vitamin
D3.
Once or twice a week, it is a
good idea to replace the pure
calcium with a good multivitamin
and minerals are supplied.You can also
leave a cuttlefish bone, or a Zoo Med
tortoise block in the enclosure and the
tortoise will scrape off calcium and
swallow it. This has the advantage that the
animals can benefit from this mineral
when required and they can wear down
o
or even better, exposure to natural,
unfiltered sunlight on warm days. Basking
under a suitable UV light is essential to
allow reptiles to make and use vitamin D3,
which is responsible for the uptake and
utilisation of calcium within the body. This
is a whole subject in its own right, and has
been covered in many articles and books,
so we are not going to cover it again here.
But suitable lighting is a vital part of any
tortoise set-up and must be researched
The artificial option.....
There is no doubt that trying
to mimic the natural diet is the
best option for a pet tortoise.
But what about the middle
of winter, or those days when
there simply isn’t enough time
to source some weeds? These
days, people are increasingly
using substitute foods, and it
s a subject that has caused
heated discussions in the world
of tortoise keeping for many
years.
As a general rule, artificial
foods should not be used as
the staple diet. At the current time, our
understanding of the nutritional
requirements of tortoises is incomplete
and so an artificial pelletised food that has
been proved to be suitable as a sole,
lifelong food is not available. But things
have moved on in leaps and bounds
recently, and formulated foods are now on
offer that can be used as part of a mixed
diet which also contains a good selection
of suitable plants.
What you need to avoid are extruded
pellets based around cereals such as
wheat or maize. These foods can have
high levels of carbohydrates and, during
preparation, the ingredients are finely
chopped or ground to make an even
consistency suitable for extrusion. This fine
texture means that even if they have
suitable levels of fibre and protein as a
total percentage of the diet, it is in an
unnatural form of food for a tortoise.
This has consequences for the way the
food is digested, and the subsequent
growth of the tortoise. Once in the
stomach, the constituent parts of the diet
disintegrate into their fine particles,
creating a large surface for the enzymes
and bacteria in the tortoise’s gut to start
digesting. This increases the speed and
effectiveness of the digestive process
releasing more nutrients than would
occur if the tortoise were swallowing
larger pieces of food.
Fine particles of fibre do not speed food
through the gut in the same way that long
the UK rarely, if ever, accumulate calcium
to the same level and so supplementation
is necessary. This is best achieved by
calcium with a good multivitamin
powder, such as Vetark’s Nutrobal. This
will help to ensure that essential vitamins
their beak in the process by
nibbling at the hard surface
as they do so.
Alongside good nutrition, there
is also a need for good quality UV
(ultraviolet) light - either artificial lighting‡ The beaks of tortoises
can become seriously
overgrown, and will need
veterinary attention. This
is also related to an
indequate diet in most
cases.
thoroughly when starting out
with these reptiles.
The
There is no doubt that trying
to mimic the natural diet is the
But what about the middle
of winter, or those days when
there simply isn’t enough time
to source some weeds? These
days, people are increasingly
using substitute foods, and it
s a subject that has caused
heated discussions in the world
of tortoise keeping for many
years.
foods should not be used as
31. fibres do, which gives even more time for
the enzymes and bacteria to act, and so
even more nutrients are released. The
result of this is that although the analysis
of the food looks suitable, it can still cause
rapid, unnatural growth, particularly if
used excessively, with the amount of
greenstuff in the diet being restricted.
Another issue with these particular
formulated diets is that unfortunately,
tortoises love them! Although this may
seem to be a good thing, it means that
the animals are tempted to eat too much
of a food that is not ideal, while their often
unsuspecting owner is tempted to use
something which their animals clearly like
to eat!
Newer prepared foods, such as Zoo
Med’s grassland tortoise diet or Lucky
Reptile’s Herbcobs, are produced by
coarsely chopping natural food plants and
then forming these into large cobs. This
retains the structure of the plant to a
greater extent, meaning that the food not
only contains good levels of protein and
fibre, but it is in a form much more
reminiscent of the tortoise’s natural diet.
added calcium and
vitamin D3 to their
food as a means of
frequently-seen
deficiencies.
What to expect
As our understanding
of tortoise nutrition
improves, then we
will probably see a
complete diet
developed, in much the
same way as dry dog
and cat foods have been
evolved. But in the
meantime, formulated foods
remain something that should
simply be used as part of a diet based
around natural plant material, and they
are especially useful during the winter
months when weeds are in short supply.
Given the correct food, a tortoise will
grow slowly and steadily, developing a
smooth, hard shell as it goes and this is
the aim of every tortoise keeper. A poor
diet, however, can have devastating,
life-long impacts though, and can easily
prove fatal.
Common problems that are seen are
things like metabolic bone disease (MBD),
beak overgrowth and, of
h
Rapid growth can
e
l
i
are even worse, with the growth of the
shell being unable to keep pace with the
growth of the body, leading to deformity.
An alternative theory is that prolonged
ProRep have taken this idea further and
weed and grass-based
helping to tackle these
What to expect
As our understanding
developed, in much the
same way as dry dog
and cat foods have been
meantime, formulated foods
remain something that should
simply be used as part of a diet based
beak overgrowth and, of
course, the dreaded shell
pyramiding. Pyramiding
ranges from a slightly
bumpy shell in mild cases
to a catastrophic
deformity of the shell
and skeleton. Although
there is much debate
about the exact cause,
it is generally accepted
that two factors are
highly significant.
result if there is too
much protein in the
diet, the food supplied is
in an unsuitable form, or
the animal s mply gets too
much food. If this is
accompanied by inadequate levels of
calcium or vitamin D3 then the problems
Top tip!
If you are switching a tortoise from
an unsuitable food, to a more
natural weed or mixed diet, then
start by mixing the old and new
foods together to wean your pet
across to it. This also minimises the
risk of any digestive upsets.
†
