The document discusses the co-evolution of flowering plants and their pollinators over millions of years. It provides examples of highly specialized mutual dependencies that have developed between certain plants and pollinators, such as yuccas and yucca moths, passionflowers and butterflies. Many flowers have evolved traits like nectar guides, nectar spurs, and pollen structures that match the morphology of specific pollinator species in order to facilitate efficient pollination.

1. Which Came First the Flower or the Bee? Landscapes West 2009 Sheryl Williams [email_address]

4. The pollen from an anther must make contact and be physically and chemically correct in order to be taken into the stigma Anther Stigma

8. Wind Pollination

18. Flowering Plants

23. HIGHER EVOLUTION PLANTS AND POLLINATORS

31. YUCCA AND THE YUCCA MOTH - DEPENDENCY

32. http://cornellcollege.edu/biology/insects2003/ianpat/images/yucmoth2.jpg

43. This is Agraulis vanillae, the Gulf Fritillary. These butterflies are often present in large numbers, especially from mid-late summer. Gulf fritillary caterpillars are more often found on passion vines in open, full sun, and are usually found feeding on older leaves away from the tip of the vine.

48. In order to avoid competition for food and cannibalism, Heliconius butterflies avoid plants that already have eggs on them Passiflora boenderi leaf with egg mimic nectaries . http://www.mobot.org/mobot/research/passiflora/subgenus_Decaloba.shtml Photo: J.M. MacDougal

51. Heliconius -egg mimicry in Passiflora and shape camouflage http://www.ucl.ac.uk/~ucbhdjm/courses/b242/Coevol/Coevol.html

52. THE GENTIAN AND THE CARPENTER BEE FLORAL SONICATION

60. ORCHID AND THE MOTH MUTUAL DEPENDENCE ORCHID AND SPECIFIC POLLINATOR

64. http://www.orchidspecies.com/angsesesquipe.htm

65. COLUMBINES - SHAPE SHIFTING

69. http://pollinator.com/queen_bumblebee.htm http://www.pbase.com/mroper/image/71250086 http://www.wunderground.com/data/wximagenew/n/novembergale/214.jpg

70. http://fireflyforest.net/firefly/2005/12/15/golden-columbine/ http://www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/pollinators/plantstrategies/images/black-chin_hummingbird_yellow_columbine_lg.jpg http://www.fortnet.org/NCBA/Columbine1.jpg

71. THE FLOWER AND THE FLY

74. http://www.naturalhistorymag.com/master.html?http://www.naturalhistorymag.com/0305/0305_feature.html Photo © Steven D. Johnson

77. The Guild Iris – Lapeirousia anceps African Corn Lily - Ixia paniculata Orchid - Disa draconis Geranium- Pelarbonium suburbanum

79. MIMICRY AND DECEPTION THE ORCHID AND THE BEE

80. Ophrys speculum http://www.plata.gr/chania/flaura.asp http://www.treknature.com/gallery/Europe/Spain/Extremadura/photo49863.htm

84. Ophrys speculum Mirror Orchid In an extreme case of sex fakery, an orchid produces oddball chemicals that mimic a female wasp's allure so well that males prefer the floral scents to the real thing, scientists say.

85. ACACIA AND THE ANT MUTUALLY BENEFICIAL

86. Bullhorn Acacia

90. Nectary Hole in the thorn The acacia produces nectar from glands along the lower part of the leaf-stalks The nectar flows all year round