RNA to protein
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RNA to Protein The building blocks of protein are amino acids. Cells assemble different amino acids into polypeptide chains through the process of translation. Translation involves mRNA carrying the genetic code from DNA to the ribosome where transfer RNA (tRNA) and ribosomal RNA (rRNA) are used to link amino acids in the correct order specified by the mRNA codons. Translation begins with initiation, followed by elongation to assemble the amino acid chain, and ends with termination when a stop codon is reached.
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DNA contains the genetic instructions that determine an organism's characteristics. It is found inside the nucleus of cells, packaged into structures called chromosomes. DNA is made up of nucleotides containing phosphate, sugar, and one of four nitrogen bases. The sequence of these bases encodes instructions to make proteins and control the organism's traits. DNA has a double helix structure that allows it to efficiently store and replicate these instructions when cells divide. During protein synthesis, DNA is transcribed into mRNA which is then translated to produce proteins according to the DNA's genetic code.
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1. Transcription is the process by which DNA is copied into messenger RNA (mRNA) by RNA polymerase. This involves three phases - initiation, elongation, and termination.
2. Eukaryotic transcription is more complex than prokaryotic transcription due to multiple RNA polymerases, nucleosomes, separation of transcription and translation, and intron-exon structure of genes.
3. Following transcription, eukaryotic mRNA undergoes processing including capping, polyadenylation, and splicing before being translated into protein by ribosomes.
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A closer look of educationa system on the selected countries
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social institutions I characteristics and functions of social instititutions
social institutions I characteristics and functions of social instititutionsMaria Theresa Bicar - Edar
This instructional materials can be used in social dimension. it is about social institutions and its characteristics and functions. Also included the five major social institutions.Teaching profession / a closer look to education on selected countries
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Integers and Operation of Integers
This document provides information and examples about integer operations:
- Addition of integers follows the same rules as normal addition, such as 20 + 10 = 30 and -40 + -60 = -100.
- Subtraction of integers is performed similarly to addition, such as -3 - 7 = -10 and 15 - 9 = 6.
- When multiplying integers, the product is positive if the signs are the same and negative if the signs are different, exemplified as -2 × 6 = -12 and 2 × -3 = -6.
- For division of integers, the quotient is positive if the signs are the same and negative if the signs are different, with examples like 12 ÷ -4 =
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A closer look of educationa system on the selected countries
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Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering.pptx
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Syllabus
Chapter-1
Introduction to objective, scope and outcome the subject
Chapter 2
Introduction: Scope and Specialization of Civil Engineering, Role of civil Engineer in Society, Impact of infrastructural development on economy of country.
Chapter 3
Surveying: Object Principles & Types of Surveying; Site Plans, Plans & Maps; Scales & Unit of different Measurements.
Linear Measurements: Instruments used. Linear Measurement by Tape, Ranging out Survey Lines and overcoming Obstructions; Measurements on sloping ground; Tape corrections, conventional symbols. Angular Measurements: Instruments used; Introduction to Compass Surveying, Bearings and Longitude & Latitude of a Line, Introduction to total station.
Levelling: Instrument used Object of levelling, Methods of levelling in brief, and Contour maps.
Chapter 4
Buildings: Selection of site for Buildings, Layout of Building Plan, Types of buildings, Plinth area, carpet area, floor space index, Introduction to building byelaws, concept of sun light & ventilation. Components of Buildings & their functions, Basic concept of R.C.C., Introduction to types of foundation
Chapter 5
Transportation: Introduction to Transportation Engineering; Traffic and Road Safety: Types and Characteristics of Various Modes of Transportation; Various Road Traffic Signs, Causes of Accidents and Road Safety Measures.
Chapter 6
Environmental Engineering: Environmental Pollution, Environmental Acts and Regulations, Functional Concepts of Ecology, Basics of Species, Biodiversity, Ecosystem, Hydrological Cycle; Chemical Cycles: Carbon, Nitrogen & Phosphorus; Energy Flow in Ecosystems.
Water Pollution: Water Quality standards, Introduction to Treatment & Disposal of Waste Water. Reuse and Saving of Water, Rain Water Harvesting. Solid Waste Management: Classification of Solid Waste, Collection, Transportation and Disposal of Solid. Recycling of Solid Waste: Energy Recovery, Sanitary Landfill, On-Site Sanitation. Air & Noise Pollution: Primary and Secondary air pollutants, Harmful effects of Air Pollution, Control of Air Pollution. . Noise Pollution Harmful Effects of noise pollution, control of noise pollution, Global warming & Climate Change, Ozone depletion, Greenhouse effect
Text Books:
1. Palancharmy, Basic Civil Engineering, McGraw Hill publishers.
2. Satheesh Gopi, Basic Civil Engineering, Pearson Publishers.
3. Ketki Rangwala Dalal, Essentials of Civil Engineering, Charotar Publishing House.
4. BCP, Surveying volume 1
South African Journal of Science: Writing with integrity workshop (2024)
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'Land uses,' which are determined by both human activities and the physical characteristics of the
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The utilization of land is impacted by human needs and environmental factors. In countries
like India, rapid population growth and the emphasis on extensive resource exploitation can lead
to significant land degradation, adversely affecting the region's land cover.
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centuries, evolving its structure over time and space. In the present era, these changes have
accelerated due to factors such as agriculture and urbanization. Information regarding land use and
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help of Advanced technologies like Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems is
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Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
structure of plant communities across different temporal and spatial scales. These changes can
occur natural.
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RNA to protein
- 1. RNA to Protein The building blocks of protein are called Amino acids. The cells in the body can manufacture or synthesize different kinds of amino acids that are assembled into long chains called polypeptides..
- 2. Every three nucleobases correspond to a specific amino acid. Each triple nucleobases is called a codon. Translation is the synthesis of protein by linking amino acids into polypeptide chains. This is accomplished by mRNA, rRNA and TRNA
- 3. Initiation – the first stage of translation. - this is when an mRNA and tRNA bind to a small ribosomal subunit. - at this stage, the start codon of the mRNA aligns with a tRNA part called anticodon. elongation – the second stage. - it is the assembly of amino acids into polypeptide chains.
- 5. Termination – the last part of translation. - this happens when the codon at the length of mRna strand is any of the stop codons that does not correspond to an amino acid.
- 7. Mutation - The change in DNA sequencing. - Mutations are brought by exposure to mutagens. Causes Strong magnetic wavelengths, such as ultraviolet light, can alter DNA sequencing and are considered mutagens. More over some chemical substances called free radicals such as those in tobacco smoke. Mutagens – it is a physical or chemical cause of genetic mutation.
- 8. Cancer Uncontrolled cell division may lead to growth of cells into a lump or mass of tissue that does not serve any purpose in the body, normally called a tumor. Benign tumor – means that the cells only grow very slowly. And the cells forming them do not migrate to the other parts of the body. Malignant tumor – is composed of cells that divide rapidly. Some may even take off and travel via the blood vessel and lymph nodes to spread and invade different parts of the body (metastasis. This is called a cancer.
- 9. Carcinogens - are agents that may cause changes in DNA that could lead to cancer. Example: ultraviolet radiation, s-rays, radioactive substances and certain components of tobacco smoke.
- 10. Thank you