Overview language acquisiton theories

1. Just the Tip of the Iceberg!Just the Tip of the Iceberg!
Second Language Acquisition Theories.Second Language Acquisition Theories.
Compiled by Deborah CokerCompiled by Deborah Coker
Revised for this in-serviceRevised for this in-service

2. Our MotivationOur Motivation
As the nation’s population has become inundated withAs the nation’s population has become inundated with
immigrants from many different nations speaking manyimmigrants from many different nations speaking many
different languages and dialects, educators have soughtdifferent languages and dialects, educators have sought
instructional practices that will expedite English Languageinstructional practices that will expedite English Language
acquisition in a practical, efficient, and meaningful manner.acquisition in a practical, efficient, and meaningful manner.
A plethora of theories have evolved and they can beA plethora of theories have evolved and they can be
broken down into four major categories:broken down into four major categories:
1.1. BehavioristBehaviorist
2.2. CognitivistCognitivist
3.3. HumanisticHumanistic
4.4. Constructivist (Postmodern Techniques of Knowledge)Constructivist (Postmodern Techniques of Knowledge)
(Diaz-Rico, 2008)

3. Schools of Thought:Schools of Thought:
• Behaviorist (p. 37) “Use behavioralBehaviorist (p. 37) “Use behavioral
training for accurate pronunciationtraining for accurate pronunciation
and rote memory of informationand rote memory of information
such as object and motorsuch as object and motor
vocabulary.”vocabulary.”
• Cognitivist (p.41) “Align learningCognitivist (p.41) “Align learning
with the brain and its natural wayswith the brain and its natural ways
of knowledge acquisition.”of knowledge acquisition.”
• Postmodern Techniques ofPostmodern Techniques of
Knowledge:Knowledge:
Constructivist (p.65) “LeaveConstructivist (p.65) “Leave
behind one-size-fits-all methodsbehind one-size-fits-all methods
and negotiate activities andand negotiate activities and
objectives based on the needs ofobjectives based on the needs of
the learner, using knowledge ofthe learner, using knowledge of
learning styles and multiplelearning styles and multiple
intelligences, and encouragingintelligences, and encouraging
meta-cognition and self-reflectionmeta-cognition and self-reflection
in order to increase students’ selfin order to increase students’ self
knowledge and capacity for makingknowledge and capacity for making
conscious meaning.”conscious meaning.”
• Humanistic (p.51) “Reduce tensionHumanistic (p.51) “Reduce tension
and support a positive emotionaland support a positive emotional
state in the learner.state in the learner.
(Diaz-Rico, 2008)

4. Behaviorist ApproachBehaviorist Approach
Major strategies used in the behaviorist approach:Major strategies used in the behaviorist approach:
• B.F.Skinner’s Experimental Behaviorism:B.F.Skinner’s Experimental Behaviorism: “Actions followed by an“Actions followed by an
immediate positive effect (reward) tend to be repeated, and actions followed by an immediateimmediate positive effect (reward) tend to be repeated, and actions followed by an immediate
negative effect (punishment) tend to be discontinued.” (p.38)negative effect (punishment) tend to be discontinued.” (p.38)
• The Audio-lingual Method:The Audio-lingual Method: “Students developed correct language habits by“Students developed correct language habits by
repetitious training, often using technology such as tape recordings in language laboratories.”repetitious training, often using technology such as tape recordings in language laboratories.”
(p.38)(p.38)
• Asher’s Total Physical Response:Asher’s Total Physical Response: ““Based on the association betweenBased on the association between
language and body movement.”(p.39)There is a shaping of response and externallanguage and body movement.”(p.39)There is a shaping of response and external
rewards are faded. Great for those at the non-verbal stage of language acquisition.rewards are faded. Great for those at the non-verbal stage of language acquisition.
• Direct Teaching and Mastery Learning:" ThisDirect Teaching and Mastery Learning:" This type of learningtype of learning
emphasizes explicit instructional objectives for students and promotes the learning of facts,emphasizes explicit instructional objectives for students and promotes the learning of facts,
sequenced steps, or rules.” (p. 39)sequenced steps, or rules.” (p. 39)
(Diaz-Rico, p.38-39)

5. Cognitive ApproachCognitive Approach
*Provided the theoretical basis for the Natural Approach.*Provided the theoretical basis for the Natural Approach.
Major strategies used in the Cognitive approachMajor strategies used in the Cognitive approach
include:include:
• Chomsky’s Generative Grammar:Chomsky’s Generative Grammar: “Language is learned through“Language is learned through
reinforcement and an active language processor, the language acquisition device (LAD) which generatesreinforcement and an active language processor, the language acquisition device (LAD) which generates
rules through the unconscious acquisition of grammar.”(p.41)rules through the unconscious acquisition of grammar.”(p.41)
• Krashen’s Monitor Model:Krashen’s Monitor Model: “Krashen considered acquisition (an unconscious“Krashen considered acquisition (an unconscious
process that occurs when language is used for real communication) more important that learning (whichprocess that occurs when language is used for real communication) more important that learning (which
involves “knowing about” language and its rules) in achieving fluency, and deemphasized direct instructioninvolves “knowing about” language and its rules) in achieving fluency, and deemphasized direct instruction
of syntax rules.” (p.41)of syntax rules.” (p.41)
• Information-Processing Theories:Information-Processing Theories: “The sensory register“The sensory register
(input/recognition), short-term memory (information encoding), and long-term memory (storage) work(input/recognition), short-term memory (information encoding), and long-term memory (storage) work
together during learning.” (p.43)”Perception is the process by which the sensory register receives andtogether during learning.” (p.43)”Perception is the process by which the sensory register receives and
briefly holds environmental stimuli, either as images or sound patterns, and selects input for furtherbriefly holds environmental stimuli, either as images or sound patterns, and selects input for further
processing.” (p. 43)processing.” (p. 43)
• Alternative Theories of Mental Functioning:Alternative Theories of Mental Functioning: “As information“As information
is received, the brain creates a pattern across the net, adjusted over time by repeated exposure.” (p.45)is received, the brain creates a pattern across the net, adjusted over time by repeated exposure.” (p.45)
(Diaz-Rico, p.41-48)

6. Other Universal Grammar TheoriesOther Universal Grammar Theories
1.1. The Competition Model by Felix (1985): Children’s learning processThe Competition Model by Felix (1985): Children’s learning process
follows a Language-Specific Cognitive System while adults use a Problemfollows a Language-Specific Cognitive System while adults use a Problem
Solving System. The challenge arises when the two systems compete in anSolving System. The challenge arises when the two systems compete in an
adult who is trying to master a new language.adult who is trying to master a new language.
2.2. Dulay and Burt’s Creative Construction Theory (1974): Children learnDulay and Burt’s Creative Construction Theory (1974): Children learn
as they apply ‘universal innate mechanisms’. These mechanisms allow themas they apply ‘universal innate mechanisms’. These mechanisms allow them
to reconstruct rules for the new language as they hear it used. Afterto reconstruct rules for the new language as they hear it used. After
listening for an extended period of time, students are then able to applylistening for an extended period of time, students are then able to apply
what they have been studying.what they have been studying.
(Overview of Second Language Acquisition Theory, May, 2003

7. Krashen’s Monitor ModelKrashen’s Monitor Model
1.1. The Acquisition-Learning HypothesisThe Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis (1981):(1981): This idea is similar to Chomsky’s LAD. HeThis idea is similar to Chomsky’s LAD. He
thought acquisition outweighed learning when it comes to achieving fluency and he de-emphasize directthought acquisition outweighed learning when it comes to achieving fluency and he de-emphasize direct
instruction of syntax rules.instruction of syntax rules.
2.2. The Natural Order Hypothesis:The Natural Order Hypothesis: “Language rules are acquired in a predictable order, and certain grammatical“Language rules are acquired in a predictable order, and certain grammatical
rules of the language tend to be acquired before the others.”(p.42)rules of the language tend to be acquired before the others.”(p.42)
3.3. The Monitor HypothesisThe Monitor Hypothesis:: “The mind employs an editor, the monitor, which scans utterances for accuracy in order to“The mind employs an editor, the monitor, which scans utterances for accuracy in order to
make corrections” (p.42) This can only happen if enough wait time is allowed by the instructormake corrections” (p.42) This can only happen if enough wait time is allowed by the instructor
4.4. The Input Hypothesis:The Input Hypothesis: “Learners acquire language by “intaking” and understanding language that is a “little beyond”“Learners acquire language by “intaking” and understanding language that is a “little beyond”
their current level of competence. (Krashen, 1981) (p. 2)their current level of competence. (Krashen, 1981) (p. 2)
5.5. The Affective Filter Hypothesis:The Affective Filter Hypothesis: “An individual’s emotions can directly interfere or assist in the learning of a“An individual’s emotions can directly interfere or assist in the learning of a
new language…Speaking out in a new language can result in anxiety, embarrassment, or anger. These negative emotions cannew language…Speaking out in a new language can result in anxiety, embarrassment, or anger. These negative emotions can
create a kind of filter that blocks the learner’s ability to process new or difficult words.”( p.3)create a kind of filter that blocks the learner’s ability to process new or difficult words.”( p.3)
(Overview of Second Language Acquisition Theory, May, 2003)(Overview of Second Language Acquisition Theory, May, 2003)

8. Continuum of LearningContinuum of Learning
*Krashen continued*Krashen continued
A dominant philosophy shared by many theorists,A dominant philosophy shared by many theorists,
specifically those in the Naturalist Approach, is thatspecifically those in the Naturalist Approach, is that
language is acquired through predictable and sequentiallanguage is acquired through predictable and sequential
stages of language development.stages of language development.
• Stage I: The Silent/Receptive or Preproduction StageStage I: The Silent/Receptive or Preproduction Stage
• Stage II: The Early Production StageStage II: The Early Production Stage
• Stage III: The Speech Emergence StageStage III: The Speech Emergence Stage
• Stage IV: The intermediate Language Proficiency StageStage IV: The intermediate Language Proficiency Stage
• Stage V: The Advanced Language ProficiencyStage V: The Advanced Language Proficiency
(Overview of Second Language Acquisition Theory, May, 2003)& (Diaz-Rico, p.43)

9. Information Processing Theory inInformation Processing Theory in
Action:Action:
• State the purposeState the purpose
• Short-Term Memory (STM) receives patterns ofShort-Term Memory (STM) receives patterns of
images and soundsimages and sounds
• Enhance STM by playing short-term memoryEnhance STM by playing short-term memory
gamesgames
• Long-Term Memory (LTM) is boosted by usingLong-Term Memory (LTM) is boosted by using
a schema (structure for organizing informationa schema (structure for organizing information
or concepts) combined with scripts (whichor concepts) combined with scripts (which
stores a common behavioral sequence).stores a common behavioral sequence).
(Diaz-Rico, p.44)

10. Ways to Enhance Students’Ways to Enhance Students’
Perception:Perception:
ExplanationExplanation Practices for TeachersPractices for Teachers
Variation in properties of written orVariation in properties of written or
spoken words: intensity, pitch, size,spoken words: intensity, pitch, size,
color, or noveltycolor, or novelty
Use various colored markers on theUse various colored markers on the
board; teach words that have anboard; teach words that have an
unusual sound; use volume change-upunusual sound; use volume change-up
(soft, soft, loud, soft)(soft, soft, loud, soft)
Manipulating posture, gestures, andManipulating posture, gestures, and
movementsmovements
Use accompanying gestures to teachUse accompanying gestures to teach
action words.action words.
Use of emotion: vivid mental images,Use of emotion: vivid mental images,
metaphorsmetaphors
Use reading material that quickens theUse reading material that quickens the
pulse.pulse.
Use of incongruityUse of incongruity ““The only person at the scene missingThe only person at the scene missing
was the policeman.”was the policeman.”
(Diaz-Rico, p.44)

11. Ways to Enhance Storage and Retrieval ofWays to Enhance Storage and Retrieval of
Information from Long Term Memory:Information from Long Term Memory:
PrioritizingPrioritizing Separating essential from non-essential details and focusingSeparating essential from non-essential details and focusing
on meaningon meaning
ElaborationElaboration Adding meaning to new information by connecting newAdding meaning to new information by connecting new
with existing knowledge to increase retrieval cueswith existing knowledge to increase retrieval cues
OrganizationOrganization Placing new information in a structure that serves as aPlacing new information in a structure that serves as a
guide for retrievalguide for retrieval
ContextContext Learning physical or emotional cues connected withLearning physical or emotional cues connected with
information to enhance retrieval cuesinformation to enhance retrieval cues
Repetition,Repetition,
ReviewReview
Repeated acts of storage and retrievalRepeated acts of storage and retrieval
Logic, cues, andLogic, cues, and
connectedconnected
knowledgeknowledge
Adding structure to information to assist recallAdding structure to information to assist recall
ReconstructionReconstruction Using structure to enhance recall rather than rote memoryUsing structure to enhance recall rather than rote memory
(Diaz-Rico, p. 45)

12. Alternative Theories ofAlternative Theories of
Mental Functioning:Mental Functioning:
Brain Compatible Learning is a descriptor that encompasses severalBrain Compatible Learning is a descriptor that encompasses several
additional theories. “It helps to reconceptualize teaching by taking intoadditional theories. “It helps to reconceptualize teaching by taking into
consideration how the brain learns.”consideration how the brain learns.” (D’Arcangelo, 1998; Jensen, 1998; Wolfe & Sorgen,(D’Arcangelo, 1998; Jensen, 1998; Wolfe & Sorgen,
1990)1990)
• Multiple Intelligences by Howard Gardner (1983):Multiple Intelligences by Howard Gardner (1983): There are eight differentThere are eight different
intelligences (linguistic, musical, spatial, logical-mathematical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal,intelligences (linguistic, musical, spatial, logical-mathematical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal,
intrapersonal, and natural) when used help to lower affective filters.intrapersonal, and natural) when used help to lower affective filters.
• Emotional Intelligence by Salovey and Mayer (1990) and popularizedEmotional Intelligence by Salovey and Mayer (1990) and popularized
Goleman (1998):Goleman (1998): Made up of five competencies: self awareness, self regulation, motivation,Made up of five competencies: self awareness, self regulation, motivation,
social skills, and empathy.social skills, and empathy.
• Suggestopedia by Lozanov (1982):Suggestopedia by Lozanov (1982): “Pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar are“Pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar are
assimilated and learned intuitively.” (p. 47) After relaxed and supportive instruction makeassimilated and learned intuitively.” (p. 47) After relaxed and supportive instruction make
connections through what Lozanov calls “elaborations”. These are things like readingconnections through what Lozanov calls “elaborations”. These are things like reading
dialogues, singing songs, playing games, and having conversations.dialogues, singing songs, playing games, and having conversations.
(Diaz-Rico, p. 47)

13. Behaviorist vs. CognitivistBehaviorist vs. Cognitivist
Component of LearningComponent of Learning BehavioristBehaviorist CognitivistCognitivist
Belief about the mind:Belief about the mind: •The mind is a blank slate.The mind is a blank slate.
•All minds are basically alikeAll minds are basically alike..
•The mind is an active organizerThe mind is an active organizer
•Brains vary, with multipleBrains vary, with multiple
intelligences and learning stylesintelligences and learning styles
Goal Setting:Goal Setting: •Teacher plans and sets goals.Teacher plans and sets goals. •Students participate in planningStudents participate in planning
and goal setting.and goal setting.
Motivation:Motivation: •Reward is motivator.Reward is motivator. •Learning is a motivator.Learning is a motivator.
Teaching Styles:Teaching Styles: •Teacher teaches his/her way;Teacher teaches his/her way;
one “best” way.one “best” way.
•Teacher teaches with variety; noTeacher teaches with variety; no
one “best” way.one “best” way.
Content of Curriculum:Content of Curriculum: •Students are taught “what”.Students are taught “what”. •Students are taught “what” andStudents are taught “what” and
“how”.“how”.
Assessment: who does it?Assessment: who does it? •Teacher assesses.Teacher assesses. •Students are actively involved inStudents are actively involved in
peer and self-assessment.peer and self-assessment.
Assessment: what isAssessment: what is
evaluated?evaluated?
•Product is important.Product is important. •Product and process areProduct and process are
important.important.
Role of Culture:Role of Culture: •Culture is irrelevant.Culture is irrelevant. •Culture is the basis for socialCulture is the basis for social
interaction patterns: learninginteraction patterns: learning
results from social interaction.results from social interaction.
(Diaz-Rico, p.49)(Diaz-Rico, p.49)

14. Humanistic ApproachHumanistic Approach
EmotionsEmotions
to foster:to foster:
EmotionsEmotions
to defuse:to defuse:
Self-EsteemSelf-Esteem AnxietyAnxiety
Risk-TakingRisk-Taking InhibitionInhibition
EmpathyEmpathy PoorPoor
learninglearning
attitudeattitude
MotivationMotivation
Here we see theories of languageHere we see theories of language
acquisition evolve once again, thisacquisition evolve once again, this
time, to combine cognitive andtime, to combine cognitive and
affective learning philosophies.affective learning philosophies.
““Positive emotional factors such asPositive emotional factors such as
self-esteem, motivation, andself-esteem, motivation, and
proactive attitudes help languageproactive attitudes help language
acquisition take place.” (p. 51)acquisition take place.” (p. 51)
(Diaz-Rico, p. 51-57)

15. Implementation of the HumanisticImplementation of the Humanistic
ApproachApproach
Ways to Reduce Student Anxiety:Ways to Reduce Student Anxiety:
(Adapted from Woolfolk, 2007)(Adapted from Woolfolk, 2007)
• Monitor activities to reduce undue pressure.Monitor activities to reduce undue pressure.
• Give students in competitive tasks a reasonable chance to succeed.Give students in competitive tasks a reasonable chance to succeed.
• Avoid making anxious students perform in front of large groups.Avoid making anxious students perform in front of large groups.
• Give examples or models of how the task is done when starting a new typeGive examples or models of how the task is done when starting a new type
of task.of task.
• Teach skills explicitly and provide study guides.Teach skills explicitly and provide study guides.
• Vary assignments over different modes of language learning.Vary assignments over different modes of language learning.
• Energize students by giving them a chance to be physically active.Energize students by giving them a chance to be physically active.
(Diaz-Rico, p. 55)

16. Postmodern Techniques ofPostmodern Techniques of
KnowledgeKnowledge
This is the latest incarnation of LanguageThis is the latest incarnation of Language
Acquisition Theory!Acquisition Theory!
There are four different components that make up the postmodernThere are four different components that make up the postmodern
techniques of knowledge acquisition (constructivism, intercultural positioning,techniques of knowledge acquisition (constructivism, intercultural positioning,
metarational thinking, and creation of meaning) .metarational thinking, and creation of meaning) .
This model is interactive. In addition to adding cooperative and engagingThis model is interactive. In addition to adding cooperative and engaging
activities, instructors create “mindful and “cultureful” learning”. (p.65)activities, instructors create “mindful and “cultureful” learning”. (p.65)
The primary language and culture of our students will become imbedded inThe primary language and culture of our students will become imbedded in
our instruction to engage learners and facilitate their acquisition of newour instruction to engage learners and facilitate their acquisition of new
knowledge. Using this as our foundation, our students will construct newknowledge. Using this as our foundation, our students will construct new
meanings, connections, and applications for their learning!meanings, connections, and applications for their learning!
(Diaz-Rico, p.65)

17. The Path of Inter-CulturalThe Path of Inter-Cultural
Educators!Educators!
Strategies influenced
by socio-cultural
context
Strategies influenced
by institution
Learner Strategies

18. Time to ProcessTime to Process
Now, please turn to your neighbor and share…Now, please turn to your neighbor and share…
• any ah-ha’s that may have occurred to youany ah-ha’s that may have occurred to you
• which approach do you find you have leaned towardwhich approach do you find you have leaned toward
most?most?
• what processing strategies are you most likely towhat processing strategies are you most likely to
implement?implement?
• How can you create real world situations to create theHow can you create real world situations to create the
need for your students to actively communicate?need for your students to actively communicate?

19. ReflectionReflection
Looking back over the different theories it becomes abundantly clear that ourLooking back over the different theories it becomes abundantly clear that our
current practices are a composite, a mosaic reminiscent of the many culturescurrent practices are a composite, a mosaic reminiscent of the many cultures
we see in our classrooms..we see in our classrooms..
We have definitely left the behaviorist techniques in the past in favor of thoseWe have definitely left the behaviorist techniques in the past in favor of those
that include cognition.that include cognition.
These methodologies were many and varied, creating a wealth of strategies toThese methodologies were many and varied, creating a wealth of strategies to
teach not just ESL students, but all students.teach not just ESL students, but all students.
Jenson’s arguments in favor of emotional intelligence are validated by theJenson’s arguments in favor of emotional intelligence are validated by the
humanist approach. May we all be lucky enough to be nurtured by those whohumanist approach. May we all be lucky enough to be nurtured by those who
build us up and believe in us.build us up and believe in us.
And finally, we step into the 21And finally, we step into the 21stst
century with our Postmodern Techniques ofcentury with our Postmodern Techniques of
Knowledge. By empowering our second language learners with language andKnowledge. By empowering our second language learners with language and
pride and ownership of their primary culture we are truly becoming a globalpride and ownership of their primary culture we are truly becoming a global
community.community.

20. References:References:
• Butler-Pascoe, M. & Wiburg, K.(2003).Butler-Pascoe, M. & Wiburg, K.(2003). Technology and teaching english languageTechnology and teaching english language
learners,learners, Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.
• Diaz-Rico, L.(2008).Diaz-Rico, L.(2008). Strategies for teaching english learnersStrategies for teaching english learners, (Second Ed.) Boston:, (Second Ed.) Boston:
Pearson Education, Inc.Pearson Education, Inc.
• Gitsaki, C. (n.d.).Gitsaki, C. (n.d.).Second language acquisition theories: Overview and evaluation.Second language acquisition theories: Overview and evaluation.
Retrieved May 17Retrieved May 17thth
, 2008, from Web site:, 2008, from Web site:
http://spider.georgetowncollege.edu/Education/documents/Districthttp://spider.georgetowncollege.edu/Education/documents/District
%20Guidelines/ESL%20Theories.pdf%20Guidelines/ESL%20Theories.pdf
• Greenberg, L.J.(2004).Greenberg, L.J.(2004). Language acquisition.Language acquisition. Retrieved May 17Retrieved May 17thth
, 2008, from Web, 2008, from Web
site: http://earthenrenewal.org/secondlang.htmsite: http://earthenrenewal.org/secondlang.htm
• Overview of second language acquisition theoryOverview of second language acquisition theory (2003). Retrieved May 17(2003). Retrieved May 17thth
,2008,,2008,
from Web site: http://www.nwrel.org/request/2003may/overview.htmlfrom Web site: http://www.nwrel.org/request/2003may/overview.html
• Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages. (2004).Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages. (2004). Standards and otherStandards and other
initiatives,initiatives, Retrieved October 11, 2004, from Web Site:Retrieved October 11, 2004, from Web Site:
http://www.tesol.org/s_tesol/secess.asp?CID=86&DID=1556http://www.tesol.org/s_tesol/secess.asp?CID=86&DID=1556