Memory its types ,Forgetting its causes ,How to over this ?

1. Information Processing of
Memory ,Forgetting and How to over
this ?
Sumbul Fatima
B.Ed(Hons)
University of Education

2. What is memory?
 “Memory is our ability to encode, store, retain and subsequently recall
information and past experiences in the human brain. It can be thought of
in general terms as the use of past experience to affect or influence current
behavior.
 The modern English word “memory” comes to us from the Middle English
memory, which in turn comes from the Anglo-French memoire or
memories, and ultimately from the Latin memorial and memory, meaning
"mindful" or "remember.

3. In psychology?
 In psychological terms, this faculty of mind to store the past experience or
learning and to reproduce them for use when required at a later time is
known as Memory”.

4. Mechanism of the process of
memorization:
 When we try to recollect or repeat our past experiences or learning, we
make use of the memory traces and if we are successful in the revival of
our memory traces, our memory is said to be good.
 But if, some-how or the other, the memory traces have died out, we
cannot reproduce or make use of our past experiences and learning.
 In this case it is said that we have been unable to retain what has been
learned or that we forgotten
 “Learning is then the primary condition for memorization

5. Mechanism of the process of
memorization:
 At the second stage we have to ensure that these learning experiences
retained properly in the form of mental impression of images so that they
can be retrieved when the need arises.”
 The third and fourth stages in the process of memorizations can be termed
as recognization and recall. Recognization is a much easier and simpler a
psychological process then recall

6. Mechanism of the process of
memorization:
 The process of memorization, thus, begins with learning or experiencing
something and ends with its revivals and reproduction. Therefore, memory
is said to involve four stages, viz, learning or experiencing something, its
retention, recognition, and recall,
 The condition of retaining (keeping) something
 The duration of retention depends upon the strength and quality of the
memory traces.

7. TYPES OF MEMORY

8. MEMORY
 Psychologists have tried to classify memory into
certain types according to its nature and purpose it
serves.
 1. Sensory
 2. Short-term memory
3. Long-term memory

10. SENSORY MEMORY
 Sensory memory stores incoming sensory information in
detail but only for an instant. The capacity of sensory
memory is very large, but the information in it is
unprocessed.
 For example
 If a flashlight moves quickly in a circle inside a dark room,
people will see a circle of light rather than the individual
points through which the flashlight moved. Visual sensory
memory is called iconic memory; auditory sensory memory
is called echoic memory.

11. Sensory memory
 Information is passed from the sensory
memory into short-term memory via the
process of attention.

12. Short term memory
 Short-term memory acts as a kind of “scratch-pad” for
temporary recall of the information which is being processed
at any point in time. It holds a small amount of information
(typically around 7 items or even less) in mind in an active,
readily-available state for a short period of time (typically
from 10 to 15 seconds, or sometimes up to a minute)
 Some of the information in sensory memory transfers to
short-term memory, which can hold information for
approximately twenty seconds.

13. Example
 person confronted with this sequence of twelve
letters would probably have difficulty
remembering it ten seconds later, because
short-term memory cannot handle twelve pieces
of information: HO TB UT TE RE DP OP CO RN
IN AB OW L However, these letters can be easily
remembered if they’re grouped into six familiar
words, because short-term memory can hold six
pieces of information: HOT BUTTERED
POPCORN IN A BOWL

14. Working memory
 Psychologists today consider short-term memory
to be a working memory. Rather than being just a
temporary information storage system, working
memory is an active system. Information can be
kept in working memory while people process or
examine it. Working memory allows people to
temporarily store and manipulate visual images,
store information while trying to make decisions,
and remember a phone number long enough to
write it down.

15. Long term memory
 Information can be transferred from short-term
memory to long-term memory and from long-
term memory back to short-term memory.
Long-term memory has an almost infinite
capacity, and information in long-term memory
usually stays there for the duration of a person’s
life. However, this doesn’t mean that people will
always be able to remember what’s in their long-
term memory—they may not be able to retrieve
information that’s there.

16. There are two types of long term
memory
 1 implicit memory
 Sometimes referred to as unconscious
memory or automatic memory. Implicit
memory uses past experiences to
remember things without thinking about
them. Musicians and professional athletes
are said to have superior ability to form
procedural memories

17. Procedural memory
 Which is a subset of implicit memory, is a part of the long-
term memory responsible for knowing how to do things, also
known as motor skills. You don't have to delve into your
memory to recall how to walk each time you take a step.
Some examples of procedural memory:
 Playing piano
 Ice skating
 Playing tennis
 Swimming
 Climbing stairs

18. 2: Explicit memory or declarative
memory
 Sometimes referred to as declarative memory — requires a
more concerted effort to bring the surface. Declarative
memory involves both semantic and episodic memory.
While most people can tick off the days of the week from
the time they are in grade school — which is implicit
memory — it takes explicit memory to remember that your
mother's birthday is next Wednesday.

19. There are two types of explicit
memory
 1 semantic memory
 IS IT not connected to personal experience. Semantic memory
includes things that are common knowledge, such as the names of
states, the sounds of letters, the capitals of countries and other
basic facts that are not in question. Some examples of semantic
memory include:
 Knowledge that the sky is blue
 Knowing how to use a knife and fork
 Remembering what dog is
 Recalling that President Kennedy was assassinated on Nov. 22,
1963

20. 2 :EPISODIC MEMORY
 Is a person's unique recollections of a specific event or an episode.
People are usually able to associate particular details with an episodic
memory, such as how they felt, the time and place, and other particulars.
It is not clear as to why some memories of events in our lives are
committed to memory, while others don't get recorded, but researchers
believe that emotions play a critical role in what we remember.
Some examples of episodic memory:
 Your beach vacation last summer
 The first time you traveled by plane
 Your first day at a new job
 The restaurant you went to on your first date with your spouse

21. Remembering and memory:
 memory denotes the ability of power of mind to retain and reproduce
learning. Both the terms “memorization” and “remembering” carry the
same meaning.
 While differentiating memory and remembering, Levin says
 Memory can be linked to a giant filing cabinet in the brain, with data
stored, classified and cross-field. This power of ability helps in the process
of memorization

22. Models of remembering:
 Storage and transfer model:
Atkinson-Shiffrin Multi-storage Model:
 Levels of Processing:

23. Atkinson-Shiffrin Multi-storage Model
 This is a model of how memory forms. The Atkinson-Shiffrin Multi-
storage Model has three major components to it
• Sensory memory
• Short Term memory
• Long Term memory

24. Atkinson-Shiffrin Multi-storage Model

25. Sensory memory
 This is the term given to the senses that store information from the
environment
 When you are reading a book, the text on the pages is getting processed
by your visual senses. If you are listening to a lecture about quantum
physics, your auditory senses are being used
 There are two major types of sensory memory that you will be focusing on
in VCE psychology, this includes: • Iconic Memory
• Echoic Memory

26. Iconic Memory:
 Iconic Memory:
This type of memory is involved with the vision field only. Anything that
you see visually can be stored as iconic memory,
 The storage capacity of iconic memory is very large and covers the whole
visual field and the storage duration is very small – information stays in
the iconic memory for no longer than 0.25 seconds.

27. Teset of Iconic Memory:

28. Test
 Now answer the following questions.
1) What was the character in the 2 column on the third row?
2) What was the character in the right, bottom grid doing?
3) How many male characters were there?

29. echoic memory
 This type of memory is registered by the auditory system only. All the
sounds including the pitch, noise, tone and rhythm are stored in the echoic
memory. Just like the iconic memory, echoic memory has an unlimited
capacity – you can hear everything simultaneously
 echoic memory is very short lasting – only between 1.5 to 5 seconds.

30. Short Term Memory (STM)
 For example, when you go to the shops you obviously don’t remember
all of the things that you saw or heard – a large chunk of it is lost
information!
 The Atkinson-Shiffrin model says that information is only transferred into
the short term memory when we give attention to the sensory memory
 or example, we are more likely to remember a screaming child in a
restaurant or shop because we give more attention to it compared to
other noises.

31. Duration
The short term memory has a longer storage duration of 18-30 seconds
This is one of the ways in which information in the short term memory can
be transferred into the long term memory.

32. Chunking
The short term memory, unlike the sensory memory does not have an
unlimited capacity. The capacity is only limited from 5 to 9 chunks (7 ± 2
chunks). Chunking breaking individual bits of information into sections that
you can remember

33. Chunking
 For example:
Consider the number 0403198719662009 – you can remember all 16
numbers individually by looking at each number as a separate part,
however it will be difficult to do this as the short term memory is only
limited to usually a maximum of 9 chunks
 Instead you can be more meaningful date such as:
04/03/1987 my bday
1966 mum's birthday
2009 brother’s bday reak the information into

34. Long Term Memory (LTM)
 Long Term Memory (LTM)
This type of memory is permanent unless disturbed via amnesia, brain
injury or other complications such as Alzheimer’s disease.
 It is basically the way in which information has been encoded. The
information in short term memory can be transferred into long term
memory by repetition of information

35. Levels of Processing:
 The levels of processing model of memory (Craik and Lockhart, 1972) was
put forward partly as a result of the criticism leveled at the multi-store
model. Instead of concentrating on the stores/structures involved
(i.e. short term memory & long term memory), this theory concentrates
on the processes involved in memory
 Psychologists Craik and Lockhart propose that memory is just a by-
product of the depth of processing of information and there is no clear
distinction between short term memory and long term memory

36. We can process information in 3 ways:
Shallow Processing
- This takes two forms
1. Structural processing (appearance) which is when we encode only the
physical qualities of something. E.g. the typeface of a word or how the letters
look.
2. Phonemic processing – which is when we encode its sound.
Shallow processing only involves maintenance rehearsal (repetition to help
us hold something in the STM) and leads to fairly short-term retention of
information. This is the only type of rehearsal to take place within the multi-
store mode

37. Deep Processing

- This involves
3. Semantic processing, which happens when we encode the meaning of
a word and relate it to similar words with similar meaning.
 Deep processing involves elaboration rehearsal which involves a more
meaningful analysis (e.g. images, thinking, associations etc.) of information
and leads to better recall.
 For example, giving words a meaning or linking them with previous
knowledge.
Levels of processing: The idea that the way information is encoded affects
how well it is remembered. The deeper the level of processing, the easier
the information is to recall

38. Levels of processing:
 Aim:
To investigate how deep and shallow processing
affects memory recall.

39.  Aim:
To investigate how deep and shallow processing affects memory recall.

40. Strengths
The theory is an improvement on Atkinson & Shiffrin’s account of transfer
from STM to LTM.
The levels of processing model changed the direction of memory research. It
showed that encoding was not a simple, straightforward process. This
widened the focus from seeing long-term memory as a simple storage unit
to seeing it as a complex processing system.

41. Weaknesses
Despite these strengths, there are a number of criticisms of the levels of
processing theory:
 • It does not explain how the deeper processing results in better memories
 • Deeper processing takes more effort than shallow processing and it
could be this, rather than the depth of processing that makes it more likely
people will remember something.

42. METHODS TO IMPROVE MEMORY

43. IMPROVE YOUR MEMORY
So you want to improve your memory?
You need to focus on what you’re doing
and the information you’re looking to
encode more strongly in your brain.
These tips will help you do just that:

44. FOCUS ON IT
 So many people get caught up in multi-tasking that
we often fail to do the one thing that will almost
always improve your memory — paying attention to
the task at hand. This is important, because your
brain needs time to encode the information
properly. If it never makes it into your memory, you
won’t be able to recall it later. If you need to
memorize something, quit multitasking.

45. SMELL TOUCH TASTE HEAR AND SEE
IT
 The more senses you involve when you need to encode
memory, usually the more strong a memory it becomes.
That’s why the smell of mom’s home-baked cookies can
still be recalled as fresh as though she were downstairs
making them just now. Need to remember someone’s
name you met for the first time? It may help to look
them in the eye when you repeat their name, and offer
a handshake. By doing so, you’ve engaged 4 out of
your 5 senses.

46. REPEAT IT
 One reason people who want to memorize
something repeat it over and over again is because
repetition (what psychologists sometimes refer to as
“over learning”) seems to work for most people. It
helps not to cram, though. Instead, repeat the
information spaced out over a longer period of
time.

47. CHUNK IT
 This technique works for virtually any piece of
information. Divide the large amount of information
into smaller chunks, and then focus on memorizing
those chunks as individual pieces.

48. ORGANIZE IT
 Our brains like organization of information.
That’s why books have chapters, and outlines
are recommended as a studying method in
school. By carefully organizing what it is you
have to memorize, you’re helping your brain
better encode the information in the first
place.

49. USE MNEMONIS DEVICES
 There are a lot of these, but they all share one thing
in common — they help us remember more
complicated pieces of information through imagery,
acronyms, rhyme or song. For instance, in medical
school, students will often turn memorization of the
bones in the body or symptoms of specific illnesses
into sentences, where the first letter of each word
corresponds with a specific bone or symptom.

50. LEARN IT THE WAY THAT WORK FOR
YOU
 different people prefer different methods for taking
in new information. Use the style that works for you,
even if it’s not the way most people study or try and
learn new information. For instance, some people
like to write things down when they’re learning
something new. Others may benefit more from
recording what they’re hearing, and going back to
take more detailed notes later on at their own
leisure.

51. CONNECT THE DOTS
 When we learn, we often forget to try and make
associations until later on. However, research has
shown that memory can be stronger when you try
and make the associations when you first take in the
information. For instance, think about how two
things are related, and the memory for both will be
enhanced. Connect new information to existing
information or experiences in your mind.

52. FOCUS ON ATTENDING
 If you are listening to someone, repeat or
paraphrase what they have said along with writing it
down, if possible. Try different ways of attending,
this helps make new neural connections. In a Dale
Carnegie course, the manual suggests that you
shake a person’s hand and repeat their name upon
meeting. Now with Skype and other digital media
this can be impossible, but you can still repeat
information out loud and take notes.

53. LEARN NOVEL WAYS OF THINKING
 Use it or lose it. Do crossword puzzles help? Yes.
Does Luminosity and similar websites help? Yes.
However, if all you ever do is crossword puzzles
eventually other areas of the brain and brain
connections will die off. It’s important to have a
balanced life of conversations with new friends, new
routines, and taking different routes when doing
your morning run or bicycle ride.

54. STRESS REDUCTION

55. NUTRITION
What you eat affects your brain. Eating an
anti-inflammatory
diet that is high in protein and
Omega really makes a difference.

56. RESTORATIVE SLEEP
 It is essential that you go to
bed at the same time each night
and wake up at the same time,
if possible.

57. EXERCISE

58. BE CAREFUL ABOUT PERSCRIPTION
MEDICATION
There are major drug categories that will
affect your memory including sleep aides,
steroids, antiepileptic drugs, tranquilizers, anti-anxiety drugs,
and muscle relaxants to name a few. Again, be sure to
use prescription medication and even some
herbal remedies with caution.

59. STOP SMOKING

60. REDUCE YOUR CAFFINE
This is a mixed area, because for some
people with memory problems caffeine
can actually help in the short term to attend or
focus, yet in the long run it can cause adrenal
exhaustion, which effects retrieval of information.

61. Forgetting

62. Defination of Forgetting:
 According to Munn (1967):
“Forgetting is the loss, temporary or permanent, of the
ability to recall or recognize something learnt Earlier”
 According to Drever (1952):
“Forgetting means failure at any time to recall an
experience, when attempting to do so, or to perform a
action previously learnt”

63. What is Forgetting
We frequently hear the expression:
“I am sorry, but I have forgotten”
 A student feels ashamed because of having forgotten what he had learned,
 a housewife feels embarrassed because she forgot to period the food she
cooked,

64. Reasons Why people Forget:
There are some major reasons
 Interference Theory
 Failure to store
 Motivated forgetting

65. Interference Theory
Two basis type of the interference theory
Proactive interference
Retroactive Interference
 Proactive interference when old memory makes it more difficult or impossible to
remember a new memory
 Retroactive Memory when new information interferences with your ability to
remember previously learned information.

66. Failure to store
 We forget information because it never actually made it into long term
memory.
Motivated Forgetting
 We forget memories because of upsetting or disturbing events or
experience.

67. Types of Forgetting
 Natural Forgetting
 Abnormal Forgetting
 General Forgetting
 Specific Forgetting
 Physical Forgetting
 Psychological Forgetting

68. Theories of Forgetting
 The Trace and decay Theory:
Trace decay theory explains memories that are stored in both short term and
long term memory system, and assumes that the memories leave a trace in
the brain.
 According to this theory, short term memory (STM) can only retain
information for a limited amount of time, around 15 to 30 seconds unless
it is prepared.
Example
 Sometimes we forget a person's name even though we have just met
them.

69. Interference theories
 The second major theory of forgetting holds the device of interference
responsibilities for forgetting. This theory holds that we forget things
because of such interference. The interfering effects of things previously
learnt and retained in our memory with things of more recent memory
can work both backward and forward. The psychological terms used for
these types of interference are retroactive inhibition and proactive
inhibition

70. Interference Theory
Two basis type of the interference theory
Proactive interference
Retroactive Interference
 Proactive interference when old memory makes it more difficult or impossible
to remember a new memory
 Retroactive Memory when new information interferences with your ability to
remember previously learned information.

71. Training in Memory

72. Will to learn
 There must be firm determination or strong will to learn effectively and
successfully.
 Where there is a will there is a way.
 Materials read, heard or seen without genuine interest or inclination are
difficult to be remembered for being recalled at a later time.

73. Interest and attention
 Interest and close attention are essential for useful learning and
memorization. A person who has no interest in what he learns, will not give
due attention to it and consequently will not be able to learn it.
 Bhatia (1968) states this fact in the following words:
Interest is the mother of attention and attention is the mother of memory; if
you would secure memory, you must first catch the mother and the
grandmother.

74. Adopting proper methods of
Memorization
 There are several efficient methods of memorization but not all are
suitable on all occasions and for all individuals.
 A judicious selection should be made in choosing a particular
method in given situation.

75. Following the principles of association
 It is always good to follow the principle of association in learning. A thing
should never be learnt in an isolated manner. An effort should be made to
connect it with one’s previous learning on one hand and with as many
related things as possible on the other.
 Sometimes, for association of ideas, special techniques and devices are
used that facilitate learning and recall. e.g., the letters VIBGYOR have
proved to be a very effective aid to remembering the colors of the
rainbow.

76. Groups and rhythm
 Grouping and rhythm also facilitate learning and help in remembering. For
example the telephone number 546789231 can be easily memorized and
recalled if we try to group it as 546 789 231.
 Similarly, rhythm also proves to be an aid in learning and memorizing.
Children learn effectively the multiplication tables by reciting them in a
sing-song.

77. Utilizing as many senses as possible
 Senses are said to be the gateways of knowledge and it has also been
found that the things are better learned and remembered when they are
presented through more than one sense.
 Attempts should be made to take the help of audio-visual aid material and
receive impressions through as many senses as possible.

78. Arranging better learning situation
 Environmental factors also affect the learning process and due care
should, therefore, be taken to arrange favorable learning situations
and environment.
 A calm and quiet atmosphere and stimulating environment proves
to be an effective aid to learning.

79. The learner’s internal factors
 Besides the various external factors there are things within the learner
which affect his learning and capacity of recall.
 His physical and mental health and emotional state at the time of learning
as well as reproduction of the material learnt counts a lot towards the
effectiveness of his memory.
 Therefore, due attention should be given to the improvement of the
student’s health,; physical as well as mental.

80. Provision of proper change and proper rest
 Adequate provision for rest, sleep and variety in the work should be made
as this helps to relieve fatigue and monotony.
 A mind which is fresh is naturally able to learn more and retain it for a
longer period than a mind which is dull and fatigued.

81. Repetition and practice
 Finally, repetition and continuous practice adds to the effectiveness of
memorization. Intelligent repetition with full understanding always helps in
making the learning effective and things repeated and practiced frequently
are remembered for a long time.
 Due attention should, therefore, be given to drill work and practice in the
process of memorization and learning.

82. ANY QUESTION
THANKS