This is a slide show of chapter 15 from Educational Research: Competencies for Analysis and Applications. Primarily intended for instructor use in the classroom, it is also available for students’ study use or to review as an advance organizer before class lectures or discussions. Key chapter concepts are presented in an easy-to-read format.

1. Educational Research
Chapter 15
Qualitative Data Collection
Gay, Mills, and Airasian

2. Topics Discussed
 Definition and purpose of qualitative data
collection
 Types of sources of qualitative data
 Data collection techniques
 Observing
 Interviewing
 Using questionnaires
 Examining records
 Threats to the quality of observations and
interviews

3. Qualitative Data Collection
 Definition and purpose
 The process of collecting descriptive, narrative,
non-numerical data in order to gain insight into
the phenomenon of interest
 Data collection is determined by the nature of the
problem
 The researcher must make informed decisions about
what data will contribute to the study and how to best
collect it
 Commonly known as field work
Objectives 1.1 and 1.3

4. Qualitative Data Collection
 Types of Sources
 Most common
 Observations
 Interviews
 Others
 Questionnaires; documents (e.g., journals, files, minutes,
etc.); recordings; drawings, photos, or other artistic
endeavors; or conversations (e.g., telephone calls,
informal conversations, etc.)
 Any source is acceptable as long as collecting it is
ethical, feasible, and contributes to the
understanding of the phenomenon of interest
Objectives 2.1 and 2.2

5. Observations
 Obtaining data by watching participants
in their natural setting
 Two common types
 Participant
 Non-participant
Objectives 3.1 and 3.2

6. Observations
 Participant observation
 The researcher is involved in the situation
while collecting data
 The purpose is to allow the researcher to
gain insights and develop relationships that
require an active, trusting rapport with
participants
Objective 3.2

7. Observations
 Participant observation (continued)
 Four types based on the degree of
involvement
 Active participant observer
 Privileged observer
 Active observer
 Passive observer
Objective 3.3

8. Observations
 Participant observation (continued)
 Three concerns
 Loss of researcher’s objectivity
 Difficult for the researcher to participate and
collect data simultaneously
 Participation can be difficult for the researcher
and the participants
Objective 3.4

9. Observations
 Non-participant observation
 The researcher observes and records behaviors
but does not interact or participate in the setting
 Advantages
 Less intrusive
 Less likely to become emotionally involved
 Disadvantages
 The researcher might not have the background or
expertise to participate
 The researcher might not fit into a closely organized
group
Objectives 3.2 and 3.5

10. Observations
 Field notes
 Notes taken during an observation to
describe all relevant aspects of the
situation
 Regardless of whether participant or non-
participant observation is used, field notes
are the “data”
Objective 3.6

11. Observations
 Field notes (continued)
 Two types
 Written records that contain information about the direct
observations
 Reflections of the researcher’s reactions to the
observation
 Typically taken during the observation
 Use of protocols
 A list of issues to guide the observation
 Provides focus
 Provides a common framework across field notes
Objectives 3.6 and 3.7

12. Observations
 Field notes (continued)
 Guidelines
 Start slowly
 Try to begin with no preconceptions
 Write up field notes as soon as possible
 List all pertinent information (e.g., date, site,
time, topic, participants, etc.)
 List key words related to your observation and
then outline what was seen and heard
Objective 3.8

13. Observations
 Field notes (continued)
 Guidelines
 Keep the descriptive and reflective field notes
separated
 Write down hunches, questions, insights,
thoughts, etc., after each observation
 Create an electronic file of your field notes
 Number the lines or paragraphs in your field
notes
 See the options in most word processors
Objective 3.8

14. Interviews
 Definition
 Purposeful interactions between two or
more people focused on one person trying
to get information from the other person
 Purpose
 Permits the exploration and probing of
participants’ thoughts to get more in-depth
information
Objectives 4.1 and 4.2

15. Interviews
 Two types
 Formal structured
 A specific set of questions that have been
predetermined by the researcher and are
formally asked of all participants
 Informal unstructured
 A casual, informal conversation that allows the
researcher to discover where the participants
are coming from and what they’ve
experienced
Objective 4.3

16. Interviews
 A major concern with structured interviews
 Difficulty resulting in gender and/or cultural
differences between the interviewer and the
participant
 Recommended practices
 Pilot the questions before using them
 Use questions that vary from convergent to
divergent
 Convergent – closed responses like “Yes” or “No”
 Divergent – open responses allowing for personal
elaboration from the participant
Objectives 4.4 and 4.5

17. Interviews
 Guidelines for conducting an interview
 Listen more, talk less
 Follow up on what participants say and ask
questions when you don’t understand
 Avoid leading questions
 Don’t interrupt – learn how to wait
 Keep participants focused and ask for concrete
details
 Don’t be judgmental about participants’ views or
beliefs
 Don’t debate participants over their responses
Objective 4.6

18. Interviews
 Three choices for collecting data
 Taking notes during the interview
 Can be cumbersome and disruptive
 Writing notes after the interview
 Can result in the loss of important information
Objective 4.7

19. Interviews
 Three choices for collecting data (cont)
 Audiotaping or videotaping the interview
 The preferred method for collecting data
 Can be intrusive and disruptive
 Transcribing tapes involves producing a written
file of what was said and done
 Time consuming
 Extremely difficult
 Transcripts become the field notes of an interview
Objective 4.7 and 4.8

20. Questionnaires
 A written collection of self-report
questions to be answered by a selected
group of research participants
 Permits the researcher to collect large
amounts of data in relatively short
periods of time
Objectives 5.1 and 5.2

21. Questionnaires
 Guidelines
 Carefully proofread questionnaires before you
send them out
 Avoid a sloppy, confusing presentation
 Avoid lengthy questionnaires
 Don’t ask unnecessary questions
 Use structured items with a variety of possible
responses
 Allow for “other comments”
 Decide on issues of anonymity and confidentiality
Objective 5.3

22. Examining Records
 The examination of records or documents a
qualitative researcher might collect
 Five major types
 Archival documents
 Journals
 Maps
 Videotapes and audiotapes
 Artifacts
Objectives 5.4 and 5.5

23. Threats to Quality
 Three concerns
 Observer bias
 Invalid observation that results when the observer does
not observe objectively and accurately
 Suggestions to help control observer bias
 Record you personal thoughts, feelings, reactions, etc.,
about the process
 Triangulate data – use multiple data collection methods
and multiple sources to cross-check information
Objective 5.6

24. Threats to Quality
 Three concerns (continued)
 Observer effect
 The impact of the observer participating in the
setting
 Suggestions to help control observer effects
 Try to be unassuming and non-threatening
 Gradually increase participation over time
Objective 5.6

25. Threats to Quality
 Three concerns (continued)
 Getting started
 The initial days of the study once entry has been gained
 Suggestions to minimize concerns
 Do not take what happens in the field personally
 Set up your first visit so that someone is there to introduce
you to the participants
 Don’t try to accomplish too much in the first few days
 Be relatively passive – ask general, non-controversial
questions
 Be friendly and polite
Objective 5.7