1. The USA Vis –a Vis the world: the birth of a “Superpower”
When The Second World War ended in 1945, the USA was clearly the richest, most
powerful country in the world. The war itself had put American industry to work: 86,000 tanks,
6,500 ships, as well as aero planes and guns had been built. Industrial production in 1945 was
three times what it had been in 1941. Farming too, had prospered: helped by Roosevelt’s New
Deal, agricultural production was up by one-third. America itself, alone of the Great Powers, had
suffered no war damage from bombing or fighting at home.
Most important of all, the USA possessed the atom bomb, a terrifying new weapon.
Possession of the bomb and the sheer power of the USA meant that it could not avoid playing a
large part in world affairs after war. American presidents had to spend great deal of their time in
foreign policy.
Harry Truman
When Roosevelt died in 1945, his vice-president Harry Truman took over. Truman was a
“New Dealer” and continued this involvement.
All through the 1950s and 1960s, prosperity increased. America’s lead over the rest of the
world was astonishing: with only 6% of the world’s population, America made 45% of the world’s
steel, 74% of the world’s cars and 85% of the world’s nylon. The standard of an average American
was three times than of and average British in 1960; out of ten American households, eight had a
car, eight had a telephone, nine had a television and seven had a washing machine. There was a
Boom in consumer goods. Buying more meant more jobs and so more money to spend. Due to
this, a huge advertisement business grew up to persuade people to buy more. To keep people
buying, “obsolescence” was important: thing would wear out, or go rapidly out of fashion, so you
would have to buy again.
After the war years, people were glad to return home and enjoy life. They felt they had the
prosperity. The “New Deal” had tried to bring a return to prosperity. It had also tried to help the
less fortunate Americans: the poor, the old and the ill. Truman’s plan was called the “Fair Deal”.
Two main problems he wanted to tackle: Poverty and Civil Rights (for black people).
Roosevelt had the congress on his side. As he was a democrat, he could count on a
Democratic majority in congress to pass the laws he wanted.
Until 1948 Truman had to deal with a Republican Congress. They blocked much of the “Fair
Deal”. Not even when Democrats regained control of Congress in 1948.

2. A housing act, in 1949, encouraged the building of good, cheap houses. However,
Democrats from the south blocked Truman’s hopes for civil rights. The only major achievement
was to stop segregation (racial separation) in the armed forces.
McCarthyism:
Senator Joseph McCarthy began to claim that the USA was riddled with Communist spies
and their supporters. As Chairman of Un-American Activities Committee, he had the right to
summon anyone before him to answer the charges.
Unfortunately, very few dared to oppose Senator McCarthy- If they did, they would be
accused of being friend of the enemy. That was enough to get people sacked from their jobs.
Authors accused him found it impossible to find publishers. Hollywood actors, producers and
writers –among them Charlie Chaplin– were accused and driven out of work. It was a witch hunt.
Eventually, McCarthyism burned itself out. When the procedures of Un-American Activities
Committee were televised, people were shocked at McCarthy’s rudeness and bullying. He lost the
public’s support. McCarthyism was a nasty episode in American history.
The Truman Doctrine.
The British government said that it could no longer afford to help the anti-Communist
forces in Greece. Truman stepped in with was called “The Truman Doctrine”.
The Truman Doctrine was the beginning of the USA policy for the Cold War. The policy was
called “containment”: the USA would help any country threatened by Communism so that
Communism could not advance further –it would be “contained”. The Truman Doctrine also
committed the USA to play a big part in world affairs. The USA, not the UN, would be the world’s
policeman.
The Marshall Plan
After the Second World War, Europe was destroyed. The economy was ruined; people
were living in extreme poverty and were shortages of all goods. Truman believed that Communism
succeed when people faced hardship and misery.

3. In 1947, Truman’s Secretary of State, General George Marshall, developed a plan to give
billions of dollars of aid to European countries. That aid was needed to rebuild Europe’s prosperity
and to stop the spread of Communism.
The Marshall plan built up a strong anti-communist sentiment in Europe and, at the same
time, it helped American industries by creating market for US products.
COLD WAR 1945 - 1960
WHAT IS THE 'COLD WAR'?
Cold War is the conflict between the Communist nations led by the Soviet Union an the
democratic nations led by the United States. It is fought by all means - propaganda, economic war,
diplomatic haggling and occasional military clashes. It is fought in all places - in neutral states, in
newly independent nations in Africa, Asia and even in outer space.
Causes of the Cold War.
There were deep-rooted ideological, economic and political differences between the United States
and the Soviet Union before the Second World War. These differences were intensified as a result
of their mutual suspicions inmediately after the Second World War.
Ideological:
The United States and the Soviet Union represent two opposing systems of government. In the
United States, the gorvenment is elected by free elections. The people can form political parties to
voice their political opinions. They also posses the right of assembly, of speech and of the press. In
the Soviet Union, the government is formed by the Communist Party. The people do not have the
right to form their own political parties. They do not enjoy the right of assembly, of speech and of
the press. Since these two systems of government are diametrically opposed to one another, there
can be little compromise between the United States and the Soviet Union.
Economic:
The United States wanted to encourage free trade throughout the world. The Soviet Union wanted
to shield off her own sphere from international commerce. Russia feared that trade with the West
would involve the risk of Russia being opened to western influences which would have eroded the
strength of the totalitarian regime. These differences led to much ill feeling between the United
States and the Soviet Union.
Power rivalry:
After the Second World War, with the decline of Europe, power was largely shared between the
Soviet Union and the United States. As one wanted to dominate the other, conflicts were

4. inevitable.
Immediate Causes Leading to the Cold War
Incipient conflicts between the Soviet Union and the United States began at the place-time
conferences.
Their conflict was intensified after President Truman declared the Truman Doctrine and launched
the Marshall Plan in 1947.
The historians have so far not reached any agreement on the time in which the Cold War began.
It is difficult to give and exact date for when the Cold War actually started. Some might say that it
started in 1948 with the Berlin Blockade.
The beginning of the Cold War.
When the Second World War ended, the USA and the USSR were clearly master of the world. They
were so far ahead of all other countries in power and influence that they were called the 'Super
Powers' almost as soon as the war ended, relations between the USA and the USSR cooled. There
was hostility between them for the next 45 years. This hostility between the USA and the USSR
always stopped short of actual war with each other. As both superpowers had nuclear weapons, a
real war between them could have meant the total destruction of each other and everybody else
on earth. A cold war was a war of words, propaganda and threats.
The two superpowers had never fought each other before and had been allies in the Second World
War. Stalin, the ruler of the USSR, felt his country was always being threatened or attacked. Russia
had been invaded by Germany in 1914. Several countries had sent armies to help the Whites try to
crush the new Communist state. In 1941, Germany had invaded Russia again. By the end of the
war, therefore, Stalin's main aims were to make the USSR safe from invasion and to rebuild his
shattered country. He was also very suspicious of the West and, like most of his people, had a
deep hatred and fear of Germany.
Conference of Yalta.
The war against Hitler and united the three leaders, known as the Big Three - Stalin, Roosevelt and
Churchill met in February 1945 at Yalta Conference.
Despite their differences, they agreed on some important matters.
Stalin agreed to enter the war against Japan once Germany had surrendered.
They agreed that Germany would be divided into four zones: American, French, British and Soviet.
Since the German capital, Berlin, was deep in the Soviet zone, it was agreed that Berlin itself would
also be divided into four zones.
The Big Three agreed to Hunt down and punish war criminals who were responsible for the

5. genocide in Germany.
They agreed that as countries were liberated from occupation by the German army, they would be
allowed to hold free elections to choose the government they wanted.
The Big Three joined the new United Nations Organization, which would aim to keep peace alter
the war.
Stalin was concerned about the future security of the USSR. The Big Three agreed that Eastern
Europe should be seen as a "Soviet sphere of influence".
The only disagreement was about Poland. Stalin wanted the border of the USSR to move westward
into Poland. Stalin argued that Poland, in turn, could move its border westward into Germany
territory. Churchill did not approve this plan but he also knew that there was not very much he
could do about it because Stalin's Red Army was in total control of both Poland and eastern
Germany. Churchill persuaded Roosevelt to accept it, as long as the USSR agreed not to interfere
in Greece when the British were attempting to prevent the Communist taking over. Stalin
accepted this.
Conference of Potsdam.
In May 1945, Allied troops reached Berlin. Hitler committed suicide. Germany surrendered.
A second conference was arranged in July 1945 in the Berlin suburb of Potsdam, five months after
Yalta a Lumber of changes had taken place:
Stalin's armies were occupying most of Eastern Europe.
Soviets troops had liberated country after country in Eastern Europe, but instead of withdrawing
his troops Stalin had Leith them there. By July, Stalin's troops effectively controlled Finland,
Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria and Romania, and refugees were Fleming out of these
countries fearing Communist take-over. Stalin had set up a Communits government in Poland.
Britain and the USA protested, but Stalin defended his action. He insisted that his control of
Eastern Europe was a defensive measure against possible future attacks.
American had a new president.
In 1945, President Roosevelt died. He was replaced by Harry Truman. He was much more anti-
Communist than Roosevelt. Truman and his advisers saw Soviet action in Eastern as preparations
for a Soviet take-over of the rest of Europe.
The Allies has taste an atomic bomb.
On 16 July 1945 the Americans succesfully tested an atomic bomb. Truman informed Stalin about
it, this increased suspicions and fear from Stalin.
Disagreements at Potsdam.

6. In July there was election in Britain. Churchill was defeated; he was replaced by a new Prime
Minister, Clement Attlee. The conference was dominated by rivarly side seemed able to appreciate
the other's point of view.
They disagreed over what to do about Germany.
Stalin wanted to cripple Germany to Project the USSR against further threats. Truman did not want
to repeat the mistake of the Treaty of Versailles.
They disagreed over reparations.
Stalin wanted compensation from Germany. Truman resisted this demand.
The disagreed over Soviet policy in Eastern Europe.
At Yalta, Stalin had won agreement from the Allies that he could set up the pro-Soviet
governments in Eastern Europe. Truman became very unhappy about Russian intentions and soon
adopted a 'get tough' attitude towards Stalin.
The Iron Curtain.
Over the next nine months, Stalin achieved the domination of Eastern Europe that he was seeking.
By 1946 Poland, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria and Albania all had Communist governments.
Churchill described the border between Soviets-controlled countries and the West as an Iron
curtain.
How did Stalin control Eastern Europe?
* After the war, the Soviet leader Stalin helped the Communist parties in them to win
power. Through Cominform, an organisation to co-ordinate the various Communist
government in eastern Europe set up in 1947, he made sure that these eastern European
countries followed the same polices as the Soviet Union. They became one -party states.
The Communist Party was the only legal party. Secret polices arrested the Communists
opponents. Cominform stands for the Communist information Bureau. The office was
originally based in Belgrade in Yugoslavia but moved to Bucharest in Romania in 1048 after
Yugoslavia was expelled by Stalin because I would not do what the Soviet Union told it to
do. Cominform ran meetings and set out instructions to Communist governments about
what the Soviet Union wanted them to do.
* There was need to restore law and order.
* The economies Eastern Europe were shattered. To rebuild them, the governments
followed the economic policies of the Soviet Union. They look over all industry. Workers
and farers were told what to produce. Through Comecon, and organization to co-ordinate
the industries and trade of the Eastern Europe countries set up in 1949, Stalin made sure
that the countries of eastern Europe treated with the USSR. He promises aid to countries

7. that co-operated with the Soviet Union. Comecon stands for the Council for Mutual
Economic Assitance. Its idea was that members of Comecon traded mostly with one
another rather than trading with the West. Comecon favoured the USSR far more that any
of its other members. It provided the USSR with a market to sell its goods. It also
guaranted it a cheap supply of raw materials. It set up a bank for socialist countries in
1964.
* When Soviet control was treated, the Soviet Union was prepared to use its tanks to crush
opposition.
The only countries where Stalin did not get his own way were Yugoslavia and Greece. In
Yugoslavia, the local Communism had Brown but the Germans without much help from themred
Army. Their leader, Tito, set up a Communits state independent of the USSR, ruling it himself until
his death in 1980. He sent supplies to the Greek Communists, who were fighting a civil war against
the Royalists. Stalin stayed out of this civil war as he had agreed with Churchill.
Stalin turned the countries of Eastern Europe into satellites of the USSR. This meant that they
were little more than Soviet provinces. "Cominform" set up in 1947, made sure that their
Communist parties were controlled from Moscow. "Comecon" controlled their economies for the
benefit of the USSR. Poland had to send coal, Romania oil and Czechoslovakia machine tools to
meet Soviet needs, their armed forces served Soviet policy. Eventually eastern European forces
were united in the Warsaw Pact 1955.
By the 1948, the USSR was in control of half of Europe. The reality of Soviet control of Eastern
Europe was very different from what people had hoped for. Countries that had a long tradition of
free speech and democratic government suddenly lost the right to criticize the government.
Newspaper were censored. Non-Communists were put in prison for criticising the government.
People were forbidden to travel to countries in Western Europe. To westerners, this Soviet
advance exceeded their worst fears. Churchill stated those fears in a speech in the USA nearly
1046.
President Truman inmediately declared his agreement with Churchill's speech; there were strong
Communist parties in Italy and France too. In 1947, Truman set up the National Security Council
(NSC) to unite all three armed forces, together with the Central Intelligent Agency (CIA). The work
of the CIA was to work secretly to support pro-Americans and undermins anti-Americans
anywhere in the world.
The Truman Doctrine.
The Truman Doctrine was the beginning of US policy for the Cold War. It was intended to support
democratic countries. The USA was prepared to send Money, equipment and advice to any
country wich was threatened by a Communism take-over. Truman's aims was to stop Communism
from spreading any further, this policy became known as Containment.

8. It must be clear to the Soviet Union that expansion beyond given limit would be met with military
force.
Most significantly, The Truman Doctrine also committed the USA to play a big part in the World
affairs. The USA would be the world's policeman.
The Containment Theory.
Containment was strategy to limit and prevent Soviet expansionism. It was a theory that said that
communism was like water and would trickle into countries that were weak and unstable. In
response, the US had to bolster the strength of other nations around the world in the orden to
defend democracy and the open market This theory used military, economic, and diplomatic
strategies.
Marshall Aid.
Truman believed that Communism succeeded when people faced poverty and hardship. He saw
that most of Western Europe was still shattered from the war and would need help to recover.
The Greek Government has asked for the assistance of experienced American administrators,
economists and technicians.
Truman sent the American General George Marshall to asseas the economic state of Europe. He
found was a ruined economy. Europe countries owed $11.5 billion to the USA. There was extreme
shortage of all goods. Marshall suggested that about $17 billion would be needed to rebuild
Europe's property. In December 1947, Truman put his plan to Congress, for short time, the
Amercian Congress refuse it grant this money.
There are differing views about Marshall Aid. It could appear to be a generous gesture to an ailing
Europe.
Indeed, so interesting was the idea that even the USSR applied for Marshall Aid, although it never
received any. Later, Stalin refused to have anything more to do with it. He also forbade any of the
Eastern European states to apply for Marshall Aid. Stalin's view was that the anti-Communist aims
behind Marshall Aid would weaken his hold on Eastern Europe. He also felt that the USA was
trying to dominate as many states as possible by making them depending on dollars.
The Americans remembered the disastrous effects of the Depression of the 1930s and Truman
wanted to do all he could to prevent another worldwide slump, so the Marshall Aid helped US
industry by creating markets for US goods.
Marshall Aid did rescued and restore prosperity in Britain, France, Italy and the rest of Western
Europe. It also helped US industry and gave American companies much power in Western Europe.
The Berlin blockade.

9. The first heightening of Cold War tensions ocurred in 1943 when the Soviets imposed a partial
blockade of Berlin in April, and then a full blockade in June.
Stalin wanted to destroy Germany, and the USSR had been stripping East Germany of its wealth
and machinery. On the other side, Britain and the USA wanted to rebuild Germany's industry to
became wealthy trading partner (so as not to repeat the mistake of Versailles ). This difference in
aims was the underlying cause of the Berlin Blockade. the policy of the USA and the USSR towards
Germany was so different that conflict was bound to break out there sooner or later.
Germany had become a real headache for the Western Allies. After the destruction of war, their
zones were in economic chaos. Stalin feared a recovering Germany and wanted to keep it crippled.
Germans were starving and the only solution seemed to be to allow some economic revival in the
three Allied zones. Stalin was furious; he felt that the USA's handling of western Germany was
provocative. He could do nothing about the reorganization of the western zones, but he felt he
could stamp his authority on Berlin. It was deep in the Soviet zone and was linked to the western
zones of Germany by vital roads, railways and Canals. In June 1948, Stalin blocked all these supply
lines. Stalin believed that this would force the Allies out of Berlin and make Berlin entirely
dependent of the USSR.
It was a clever plan. If US tanks did try to ram the road-blocks or railway blocks, Stalin would see it
as an act of war. However, the Americans neither were not prepared to give up. They saw West
Berlin as a test case. If they gave in to Stalin on his issue, the western zones of Germany might be
next. Truman wanted to show that he was serious about his policy of containment. He wanted
Berlin to be a symbol of freedom behind the Iron Curtain.
The Americans thought of using their army or even the atom bomb, but decided to ferry supplies
by air. The only way into Berlin was by air. Stalin stopped just short violence and did not shoot
down the planes, wich would have been an act of war.
For the next ten months, West Berlin was supplied by a constant stream of aeroplanes bringing in
everything from food and clothing to oil and building materials.
By May 1949, it was clear that the blockade of Berlin would not make the Western Allies give up
Berlin, so Stalin reopened communications.
Understanding the events that led to the imposition of the blockades is the key to understanding
the later division of the German state that had ocurred earlier in 1949 when separate west
German (Federal Republic of Germany) and east German (German Democratic Republic) states
were established.
Causes of the Berlin Blockade.
The main cause of the Berlin Blockade was the Cold War, which was just getting started. Stalin was
taking over Easter Europe by salami tactics and Czechoslovakia had just turned Communist (March

10. 1948). On the other side, the USA had just adopted the Truman Doctrine to "contain" the USSR.
The Berlin Blockade was just another event in this "Cold War" between the superpowers.
The second reason for the Berlin Blockade was that the USA and the USSR had different Aims for
what they wanted to do to Germany. The USSR had already disagreed with Britain and the USA at
Potsdam (July 1945) about this. These were the two causes which underlay the conflict in Berlin in
1948.
NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION (NATO)
Established: In April 1949, signed in Washington.
Membership: 28 Alliance Members: Albania, Belgium, Bulgaria, Canada, Croatia, Czech Republic,
Denmark, Estonia, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania,
Luxemburgo, The Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain,
Turkey, United Kingdom, and United States.
A political and military Alliance: They want to be sure that they can walk around freely in a safe
and secure enviroment. Security in all areas of everyday life is key to our well-being but it cannot
be taken for granted.
Political: NATO promotes democratic values and encourages consultation and cooperation on
defence and security issues to build trust and, in the long run, prevent conflict.
Military: NATO committed to the peaceful resolution of disputes. If diplomatic efforts fall, it has
the military capacity needed to undertake crisis management operations.
The transatlantic link: NATO is an alliance of countries from Europe and North America. It provides
a unique link between these two continents for consultation and cooperation in the field of
defence and security, and the conduct of multinational crisis management operations.
Decisions: NATO provides a unique opportunity for member and partner countries to consult and
take decisions on security issues at all levels and in a variety of fields to promote stability and
guarantee allied defence.
Each day, hundred of civilian an military experts and officials converge to NATO headquarters to
exchange information, share ideas in different forums, configurations and meetings and prepare
decisions when needed.
Operations: It is crucial to promote stability in regions where tensions pose security threats. This is
why NATO takes an active role in crisis management mandate. NATO leads multinational
operations and ensures that, in the field, personnel and equipment can fullfil the mission
efficiently.
Consensus decision making: A 'NATO decision' is the expression of the collective will of all 28
member countries since all decisions are taken by consensus.

11. The principal actors: The most important players in NATO are the member countries themselves.
They effectively form the organization. The principal political decision-making body is the North
Atlantic Council that convenes at least once a week, or whenever the need arises. NATO's
Secretary General chairs the North Atlantic Council, which is supported by an international staff of
civilian and military experts and officials from NATO countries.
In spite of the Berlin Airlift, Marshall Aid and NATO, the feeling in the USA in 1950 was that they
were losing the Cold War. In 1949, the USSR had exploded its first atom bomb, so the US
monopoly was broken. In 1949, China became Communist. This was seen as another Communist
take-over from Moscow. In 1950, Truman received a paper from his National Security Council
which recommended that the USA make a great effort to oppose Communism anywhere in the
world.
Nikita Khrushchev.
Stalin was a hero to millions of people in the USSR. He had defeated Hitler and given the USSR an
empire in Easter Europe. He made the USSR a nuclear superpower.
He died in 1953. And in 1955, after Stalin's death, emerged Nikita Khrushchev, he was very
different from Stalin. He ended the USSR's long feuds with China and with Yugoslavia. He talked of
peaceful co-existence with the West. He made plans to reduce expenditure on arms. He attended
the first post-summit between the USSR, the USA, France and Britain in July 1955. He also said that
he wanted to improve the living standards of ordinary Soviet citizens and those of eastern Europe.
Khrushchev even relaxed the iron control of the Soviet Union. He closed down Cominform. He
released thousands of political prisioners. He agreed to pull Soviet troops out of Austria. He
seemed to be signalling to the countries of Eastern Europe that they would be allowed much
greater independence to control their own affairs.
At the Communist Party International in 1959, Khrushchev attack on Stalin. He denounced him as a
wicked tyrant who was an enemy of the people and kept all power to himself. Khrushchev went to
say much worse things about Stalin and began a programme of "de-Stalinisation":
* He invited Marshall Tito to Moscow
* He dismissed Stalin's former Foreign Minister, Molotov
* He realised more political prisoners
* He closed down Cominform as part of his policy of reconciliation with Yugoslavia.
The Warsaw Pact.
The Warsaw Pact is the name commonly given to the treaty between Albania, Bulgaria,

12. Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania, and the Soviet Union, which was signed
in Poland on May 1955 and was officially called 'The Treaty of Friendship, Co-operation and
Mutual Assistance'.
Nominally the Warsaw Pact was a response to a similar treaty made by the Western Allies in 1949
(the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, or NATO) as well as the re-militarization of West Germany
in 1954, both of which posed a potential threat to the Eastern countries. Altough it was stressed
by all that the Warsaw Treaty was based on total equality of each nation and mutual non-
interference in one another's internal affairs, the Pact quickly became a powerful political tool for
the Soviet Union to hold way over its allies and harness the powers of their combined military.
When Hungary tried to extricate themselves from the agreement in 1956, Soviet forces moved to
crush the uprising; and, in 1968, Soviet troops invaded Czechoslovakia (with support from five
other Pact member), after de Czech government began to exhibit 'Imperialistic' tendencies.
The Warsaw Treaty's organization was two-fold: the Political Consultative handled political
matters , and the Combined Command of Pact Armed Forces controlled the assigned multi-
national forces, with headquarters in Warsaw, Poland. Furthermore,the Supreme Commander of
the Unified Armed Forces of the Warsaw Treaty Organization was also a First Deputy Minister of
Defence of the USSR, and the head of the Warsaw Treaty Combined Staff also was a First Deputy
Chief of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of the USSR. Therefore, although ostensibly an
international collective security alliance, the USSR dominated the Warsaw Treaty armed forces.
Speculation about Khrushchev's ambition towards the power of the Communist party may explain
the formation of the Warsaw Pact - he wanted global domination for Communism. Khrushchev
considered his plans of "de-Stalinization" to be completely justified and necessary for Soviet
prosperity. Additionally, the Communist Soviet Union was finding it increasingly difficult to fulfil its
monetary needs and thought that the Warsaw Pact would resolve this problem. One of
Khrushchev's main goals was to simulate the development of the involved Eastern European
nations so that they may function on their own.
The peaceful co-existence between the USA and the USSR.
Coexistence is a tem used in the field of international relations to describe the respectful and non-
violent relationship between divergent groups of people living in the same place or time. As
increasing numbers of conflicts between groups throughout the world escalate to violence , the
policy of peaceful coexistence remains an important goal. A state of coexistence in when multiple
groups purposefully live together peacefully and non-violently, despite differences in ethnicity,
religion, gender and politics. Often these differences are the roots of major conflict between the
groups. Under a policy coexistence, the various groups live in mutual respect and recognitition of
differences. They are able to interact with tolerance and the understanding that any conflict will
be resolved without resorting to violence. Just weeks after Eisenhower became President; Stalin's
death brought what appeared to be significant changes in Soviet international policy. Stalin's
successors began calling for negotiations to settle East-West differences and to rein in the arms

13. race. Nikita Khrushchev called his policy "peaceful coexistence".
The policy arose as a temptation to reduce hostility between the two superpowers, particularly in
light of the possibility of nuclear war. The Soviet theory of peaceful coexistence asserted that the
United States and USSR, and their respective political ideologies, could co-exist together rather tan
fighting one another, and Khrushchev tried to demostrate his comitment to peaceful coexistence
by attending international peace conferences and by travelling internationally.
Yet Eisenhower remained skeptical of Soviet rhetoric. He used a sexist metaphor to explain his
thinking to Prime Minister Winston Churchill: "Russia was a ... a woman of the streets and whether
her dress was new, or just the old one patched, there was the same whore underneath." The
President insisted on deeds that matched words, and in 1955, the Soviets changed their position
and ended a prolonged deadlock in negotiations over a peace treaty with Austria. Eisenhower
then agreed to a summit of Soviet and Western leaders in Geneva, Switzerland, in July 1955, the
first such meeting since the Potsdam Conference in 1945.
The 'Spirit of Geneva' eased tensions between the Soviets and the United States, even though the
conference failed to produce agreements on arms control or other major international issues.
Khrushchev rejected Eisenhower's proposal for an "Open Skies" program that would have allowed
both sides to use aerial surveillance to gather information about each other's military capabilities.
A year later, the President authorized the Central Intelligence Agency to begin top-secret
intelligence flights over the Soviet Union.
President Dwight Eisenhower 1952-1960.
President Eisenhower was a popular president. As a successful Secon War general, he won
elections of 1952 and 1956 easily. He brought businessmen into his government. Their main aim
was to keep the economy booming. Wages kept rising, and hours of work felt.
The boom was mainly due to war trade revival, but Eisenhower received much of the credit for it.
By the late 1950s he was often ill and appeared an old man. By that time, too crack had begun to
appear in this great American prosperity.
During most of the 1950s. Unemployment was generally low, and inflation usually was 2 percent
or less as president, Eisenhower thought that government should provide some additional benefits
to the American people. He signed legislation that expanded Social Security, increased the
minimum wage, and created the Department of Health, Education and Welfare. He also supported
government construction of low-income housing but favoured more limited spending than had
Truman.
The President gave a higher priority to balancing the budget. Eisenhower had moderate success-
three of his eight budgets were in the black. Wage earners enjoyed a prosperous decade: During
the Eisenhower presidency, personal income increased by 45 percent. Many families used their
purchasing power to buy new houses, frequently in suburban developments. Consumers also used
their income to acquire may new household items, including television sets and high-fidelity

14. equipment. A few families even made their purchases by using the first charge cards from Diners
Club and American Express.
Yet many Americans did not share in the prosperity of the 1950s. About one in every five
Americans lived in poverty by the end of the decade. The poverty rate declined during
Eisenhower's presidency, but still forty million Americans were poor when Eisenhower left office.
Poverty.
In 1960, many Americans, both Black and White, were poor. In rural areas, poor white and poor
black struggled to make a living on small farms. In some areas of the Appalachian Mountains
mining had declined, leaving unemployment and poverty. In the richest country in the world, there
were areas with bad housing and schools. In country which produced so much food that surplus
was often burned or dumped in the see, many people went hungry.
This was partly a matter of the American way of life, the old-fashioned of the American belief was
that anyone could do well if they worked hard; if the poor it was their own fault. There was,
therefore, no help service, no dole, no social security. They thought that such "welfare" existence
encourages people to be lazy. The was no sickness benefit system and very little old-age pension.
Unfortunately, people can not help being hit by bad luck, illness or old age. Single young parent's
families, the old and the ill made up a large Lumber of the poorest Americans.
Blacks in America.
Black Americans were often poor, but they suffered another difficulty as well: discrimination.
Despite the state on the US Constitution that all man are created equal, blacks were not treated
equally. After the abolition of slavery in 1856, most blacks stayed in the south were they made up
nearly half the population. The whites ruled south, however, passing laws o make separate white
and black facilities legal. Thus, the signs "white ladies" and "black women" were common. Black
had to seat at the back of buses, white at the front. White and black seating areas were made in
restaurants. Separate white and black schools were built. They were separate and unequal as well:
on average, the southern states spent 45 dollars on each white child's education and 13 dollars on
each black child per year. In many states there was a literacy test in order to vote. With bad
education and white churches, it is not surprising that few blacks voted.
Roosevelt, Truman and Eisenhower had all tried to use Federal (Washington) power to break this
inequality. The local, state government under white control, however, had been largely successful
in resisting this pressure.
During and after the Second World War, many blacks moved north to the cities and to California.
They were discriminated again in jobs, forced to take cheap, bad housing in the black ghettos. As
black moved in, richer white city residents moved out to the suburbs. Many blacks in the city saw
themselves in a tramp: with poor education and poor jobs, they could not get out of the ghetto.
Bad housing and family stress turned many to drugs and to crime. By 1960, the crime rate in
American city had reached enormus proportions. Add to these difficulties the problems of

15. pollution and the motor car, and the cities plight becomes obvious. Yet the cities do not have the
money to deal with these problems, as their most prosperous citizens moved out to suburbs
leaving the poor behind.
The Middle East.
The Middle East has been one of the most volatile and violent subsystems of the international
political systems since the end of the Second World War. Postwar history in the Middle East has
been punctuated by and unusally high number of full-scale, inter-state wars.
The states in question are Israel, her Arab neighbours and the Great Powers: Britain, France, The
United States and the Soviet Union. These states dominated the international politics of the
Middle East in the aftermath of the Second World War. And it is the policies and actions of these
states which are assumed to be the principal cause of war in the region.
Two feauters of the Middle East help to account for the interest and rivalry it has evoked among
the Great Powers in the twentieth century: its geostrategic importance and its oil reserves. Great
Power involvement is not a unique feature of the Middle East but one that affects, in varying
degrees, all regions of the world. What distinguish the Middle East is the intensity pervasiveness
and profound impact of this involvement. No other part of the Third World has been so throughly
and ceaselessly caught up in Greta Power rivalries. No other sub-system of the international
political system has been as penetrated as the Middle East.
The dominant Great Powers in the Middle East were the Ottoman Empire until its dissolution in
1918, Britain and France until, roughly, the Suez war of 1956, the United States and the Soviet
Union from Suez until the dissolution of the Soviet Union un 1991, and the United States on its
own since 1991. So much stress has been laid on the role of these external powers that the history
of the modern Middle East has often been written as though the local states were 'driftwood in
the sea of internatinal affairs, theirs destinies shaped by the decisions of others'. Yet this is a false
picture, popular as it is with Middle Easterners and outsiders alike. The dominant feature in the
relashions between international and regional powers is the manipulation of the former by the
latter. The superpowers were rarely able to impose their will in the smaller states of the Middle
East.
Although the local states depended on their respective superpower patrons for diplomatic
support, economic ais and the supply of arms, they managed to retain considerable freedom of
action. Yet no account of the origins if Arab-Israeli wars would be complete if it ignored the role
played by outside powers.
When the role of the Great Powers is considered alongside others factors - the Arab-Israeli conflict
and inter-Arab relations - we get some idea as to why the international polictics of the Middle East
are so complex, endemically unstable, and prone to violence and war.