my thesis that i was prepared

1. i
PASTORALIST’S PERCEPTION OF POISONOUS PLANT IN LIVESTOCK IN
SHEIKH DISTRICT, SOMALILAND
By:
MOHAMED ISMAIL ABDILAHI HASSAN
REG: IV/296/16
SUPERVISOR: Dr’s Amina Hussein
A thesis submitted to IGAD Sheikh Technical Veterinary School (IGAD), in partial
fulfilment for the attainment of Diploma in Livestock Health (DLH)
June, 2019
Sheikh, Somaliland

2. ii
DECLARATION
I, Mohamed Ismail Abdullah declare that the work presented here is my original work and has not
been produced anywhere in any form and has not been presented in any institution of higher
learning for the award of any certification. All the published work used has been acknowledged
and well referenced.

3. iii
DEDICATION
I dedicate this work to my beloved mother Ruun Ismail Mohamed, my hero father Ismail abdilahi
Hassan and the whole our family for their tireless support, encouragement and inspiration they
gave me during the time of my studies.

4. iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First of all, praise to be Allah who made everything easy for me. Secondly I would like to express
my deep and utmost gratitude and thanks to my supervisor Dr’s Amin Husein.
I would also like to thank those farmers and livestock health practitioners for their willingness to
participate in this knowledge assessment research.
My especial thanks go to all my dear tutors for their effort and the fruitful education they gave me.
I am also thankful to my beloved parents and all my brothers for their effort and praying to my
success. Finally, I would also like to express my thanks to all my class mates for their constant
encouragement.

5. v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION ....................................................................................................................... ii
DEDICATION.......................................................................................................................... iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT......................................................................................................... iv
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUTION .........................................................................................1
1.1 Background information........................................................................................................1
1.2 Problem statement.................................................................................................................2
1.3 Justification...........................................................................................................................2
1.4 Objectives .............................................................................................................................3
1.4.1 General objective ............................................................................................................3
1.4.2 Specific objectives ..........................................................................................................3
CHAPTER TWO: LITERUTURE REVIEW..........................................................................4
2.1 General introduction to poisonous plants ...............................................................................4
2.2 Animal Health and Economic Impacts Associated with Plant Poisoning ................................5
2.3 Factors Affecting Severity of Poisonous Plants......................................................................5
2.4 Plants That Affect the Digestive System and cause irritation of the Oral Cavity.....................6
2.5 Plants Containing Substances That Cause Hepatocellular Necrosis........................................7
2.6 Plants That Cause Intrahepatic Cholestasis ............................................................................8
2.7 Plants That Affect the Urinary System.................................................................................10
2.8 Treatment of Poisoned Livestock by Toxic Plants ...............................................................11
2.9 Control and Prevention of Plant Poisoning ..........................................................................12
CHAPTER THREE: MATERIAL AND METHODS...........................................................13
3.1 Study area ...........................................................................................................................13
3.2 Study population .................................................................................................................14
3.3 Study design........................................................................................................................14
3.4 Sampling method ................................................................................................................14
3.5 Data storage and analysis.....................................................................................................14
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS ...............................................................................................15
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION...........................................................................................18
CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION..........................................20
REFERENCE ...........................................................................................................................21
ANNEX ONE: Complained poisonous plants with their local and scientific names, manifested
signs and affected species..........................................................................................................25
ANNEX TWO: Questionnaire...................................................................................................36

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Map of study area......................................................................................................13
Figure 2: Gender of the respondents.........................................................................................15
Figure 3: Age group of respondents in percentage ....................................................................15
Figure 4: Season which animal poisoning is most common ......................................................16
Figure 5: Consumption of meat of poisoned animal..................................................................17

7. vii
ABSTRACT
Poisonous plants cause significant losses of livestock every year. A variety of poisonous plants
have caused extensive losses to the livestock industry in many parts of the world mainly east Africa
including Somaliland since the days of early settlement. They are still significant problems in
numerous areas. Therefore, a cross-sectional study was conducted with the objective of assessing
pastoralist’s perception of potentially poisonous plants in and around Sheikh District, Somaliland.
200 individuals were interviewed of which 130 were livestock owners and 70 animal health
practitioners on voluntary basis. The result of this assessment indicated that majority (58%) of
people interviewed complained presence of poisoning plants in the study area. In addition, 42
plants were identified by respondents as having poisoning effect on livestock among which
Ficussalicifolia, Sorghum bicola, Pavetta venenata, Datura Stramonium and Latana camara had
the highest botanical frequency. Feed shortage was identified as major risk factors (80%) which
predispose livestock to toxic plants in and around Sheikh District. Therefore, providing livestock
supplement feed during drought seasons to avoid the exposure to plant poisoning while searching
for feeds and preventing livestock from grazing the pasture known to be infested by poisonous
plants while also insuring inspection of harvested feed for livestock before feeding to them can
minimize the risk of exposing livestock to toxic plants in the study area.
Keywords: Cross-sectional, Livestock, Poisonous plants, Questionnaire, Sheikh District

8. 1
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUTION
1.1 Background information
Livestock are facing various life threatening hazards notably infectious (parasitic, bacterial, viral,
protozoal, fungal) and non-infectious like metabolic diseases, poisoning and other miscellaneous
origin. Somali people especially farmers and traditional animal healers have been using traditional
methods to treat both human and their livestock diseases for generations. Traditional medicine is
still widely practiced in areas where modern health care services are limited (Wirtu, 1999).
Traditional animal healers can use plant parts like seeds to treat cattle with abdominal distension,
leaves for different treatment of diseases and other parts of the plants (Wirtu 1999 and Boulos
1983).
The pastoral areas in Sheikh District experience a relatively harsh climate with low, unreliable,
and erratic rainfall as well as regularly high temperature (Angassa and Tolera 2006). Pastoralism
and agro-pastoralism is the dominant types of land use in this areas. The Sahil rangelands of
Somaliland are among the major pastoral areas of the country which support livestock that are
highly valuable to the nation as direct sources of food for the pastoral and agro-pastoral population
and as sources of cash income and foreign currency for the nation (Wirtu, 1999).
Poisonous plants are a major cause of economic loss to the livestock industry. Many of the death
losses of livestock from grazing poisonous plants are due to management error. This includes
failure to examine a pasture or range prior to use because the growth of some of these plants varies
from year to year. Failure to know and understand plants in an area that are toxic to livestock can
lead to catastrophic losses. Poisonous plants cause significant losses of livestock every year. A
variety of poisonous plants have caused extensive losses to the livestock industry in many parts of
the world mainly east Africa including Somaliland since the days of early settlement. They are still
significant problems in numerous areas. Poisonous plants produce their toxic effects after being
ingested and/or absorbed by animals (Radeleff, 1964) which include physical upset, loss of
productivity and death. Therefore, even though plants have vital nutritious and providing the
normal atmospheric oxygen, it will cause life threatening if it is toxic (Bah MS (2013).

9. 2
Plant poisoning is due to either accidental ingestion of material eaten along with grass or wilful
consumption of poisonous plants when pasture is dry while most poisonous plants remain green
all the year round. It is also more likely to occur in animals which have been moved from one part
of the country to another. New importations are unfamiliar with the strange ingestion of their fresh
surrounding (Mugera GM (1970).
Overgrazing of pastures and ranges probably the greatest factor in causing losses from poisonous
plants. The danger of overgrazing is always greatly increased in periods of moisture deficiencies
that reduce forage production (Radeleff RD 1964). However, plant poisoning essentially is a local
problem occurring in areas where poisonous plants may form a large proportion of the herbage
species available to grazing animals. Poisonous plants are often naturally refused by animals (may
have repulsive smell or contain highly irritant juices) and are eaten only when other herbage
pastures is scarce (Clarke EG, Clarke ML (1978)).
In general, in Somaliland a number of plant species are found in which some have medicinal value
without having toxic effect on animal (Edwards, 1982) and some have very toxic even at small
dose. Therefore, it is imperative to bring to the attention of all professionals the effects of
poisonous plants on animal health and productivity (Kaufmann, 1986). Therefore, the present
study is designed to assess potentially poisonous plants to livestock in and around Sheikh District.
1.2 Problem statement
The key to avoiding problems with poisonous plants is to properly identify these plants and
avoid them. Recognizing poisonous plants and properly managing animals and pastures will
help minimize the potential of poisoning animals. Therefore, because of lack of awareness of
the farmers, it is a crucial step to assess and identify these plants so that their adverse effect
can be avoided.
1.3 Justification
Recently, because of the drought of 2017, there are numerous reports from farmers complaining
of sudden death of their animals. Almost every day there are complaints reaching ISTVS clinic of
animals dying suddenly without showing any previous illness. It is also obvious that many farmers

10. 3
do not recognize poisonous plants on their rangelands nor is the task of identifying the cause of
death on animals found on the range an easy one. Knowing of the poisoning plants are important
in livestock sector so as to provide the animals a suitable land grassing to prevent the losses of
these poisonous plants. Therefore, this study was conducted to assess the poisoning plants in
Sheikh town to as to provide the information gathered to all farmers/producers as well as to any
other stakeholder. Sheikh was chosen because it’s mountainous area rich in different species of
plants.
1.4 Objectives
1.4.1 General objective
The general objective is to assess pastoralist’s perception of poisonous plants found in and around
Sheikh District.
1.4.2 Specific objectives
 To collect indigenous knowledge from local farmers and animal health practitioners.
 To identify potentially poisons plants to livestock in and around Sheikh town.

11. 4
CHAPTER TWO: LITERUTURE REVIEW
2.1 General introduction to poisonous plants
Somaliland is gifted with unique habitats that provide safe place for many endemic species of
plants which is due to diversified climatic and soil condition of the country. These ecological zones
influence the distribution of various species of plants and animals (Mekonnen, 1994). Somaliland
people especially farmers and traditional animal healers have been using different plants to treat
their livestock diseases for generations which might have been affected livestock health due to
their improper usage (Martin, 1995).
Plants comprise the third largest category of poisons known around the world. They form a major
part of livestock feed, thus toxicosis in animals consuming these plants can be expected. It is also
known that poisonous plants constitute a major cause of economic loss in livestock industry since
the days of early settlement (Clarke, 1977). Poisonous plants are widely distributed all over the
world and are used for different purpose such as hunting, fishing and treating various diseases (Al-
Quran, 2005). These plants used in folk medicine in treating human ailments and animal diseases
are considered poisonous and the beneficial effects often occur at lower doses whereas overdose
can induce poisoning (Botha and Penrith, 2008). The poisonous part of plants may be bark, roots,
latex, leaves, shoots, seeds and in some cases whole plants. Poisonous effects are due to production
of substances such as alkaloids, glucosides picrotoxins, resins, saponins, tannins, toxalbumins in
the parts of plants, many of which are harmful to humans and animal’s life, at under certain
conditions (Katewa et al, 2007). A common characteristic of several poisonous plants is a
disagreeable taste that ordinarily discourages livestock from grazing them. Some species of
poisonous plants are poisonous only at certain stage of growth. Most of the people not familiar
with plants found in and around their environment that might be potentially harmful if ingested,
injected, contact through the skin and most plants cause poisoning in animals only when they are
accidentally eaten. The knowledge of these poisonous plants is passed on from one generation to
another through local and elderly people. This knowledge is a very important for providing general
awareness and toxicological research (Huai and Xu, 2000).

12. 5
2.2 Animal Health and Economic Impacts Associated with Plant Poisoning
A variety of poisonous plants have caused extensive losses to the livestock industry in many parts
of the world, mainly east Africa including Somaliland since the days of early settlement. They are
still significant problems in numerous areas. Poisonous plants produce their toxic effects after
being ingested and/or absorbed by animals which include physical upset, loss of productivity and
death. According to research conducted in the USA, plant Poisoning causes 3.7% of all deaths
annually (NAHMS, 1997). Therefore, even though plants have vital nutritious importance and
providing the normal atmospheric oxygen, it will cause life threatening effect if it is toxic
(Radeleff, 1964).
Poisonous plants are the cause of heavy losses annually among all kinds of domestic animals
maintained on range or pasture. Perhaps nothing causes more vexation and discouragement than
losses ascribed to this source. Stockmen have long recognized in general the causes of such trouble,
yet relatively few are familiar with the poisonous plants found on their ranges.
Poisoning occurs when a toxic substance is swallowed, inhaled, or absorbed after coming in
contact with the skin, eyes, or mucous membranes. Poisoning is also called toxicosis or
intoxication. Because animals are unable to tell whether a substance is poisonous or not, they
are often poisoned by eating something toxic, such as antifreeze or a poisonous plant. Animals
can also be poisoned by a sting or bite from a venomous insect or snake, or even by a well-
intentioned owner giving human drugs that are poisonous to animals. (Merch and Dohme, 2019).
An animal can be poisoned after a single exposure (with effects most pronounced during the first
24 hours) or after repeated or prolonged exposure to a poison. All toxic effects depend on the
dose—the amount of poison present—and on the species. A small dose may be undetectable and
have no harmful effects, while a large dose can be fatal (Barry and Blakely 1998).
2.3 Factors Affecting Severity of Poisonous Plants
It may be found that many plants in the pastures that are considered poisonous yet, the problems
that they pose never seen. This is because the severity of plant poisonings is generally influenced
by many factors including: the chemical nature of the toxin amount and time period of the toxin
eaten, parts of the plant eaten, the general condition and stage of maturity of the plant,

13. 6
environmental conditions in which the plant is growing, species of the animal, and the age, size,
sex and general condition of the animal, plant species (Mac and Maureen, 1996). Plant species (all
plants absorb nitrates, but plants such as the sorghums, small grains, corn, turnips, rape, kochia,
orchard grass, pigweed, lambs quarter and soybeans are more likely than other plants to accumulate
nitrates in toxic levels). Plant parts (the entire plant (as in the case of Johnson grass) or only certain
parts of plants (as in the case of a corns and buds of oak trees) may accumulate poisons to a lethal
level) (John, 1984).
2.4 Plants That Affect the Digestive System and cause irritation of the Oral Cavity
Many plants belonging to the Araceae family contain needle-shaped calcium oxalate crystals in
their leaves. These crystals are known as raphides and are housed inside specialized cells known
as idioblasts (Genua and Hillson 1985). When the plant leaves are chewed, the idioblasts are
broken and the oxalate crystals are expelled, causing an immediate burning sensation in the oral
cavity tissues. Plants that accumulate calcium oxalates are fairly common in Colombia and some
of them are even native to the country, such as Dieffenbachia picta (cucaracho), recognized as the
most toxic of all Araceae plants (Cao 2003). The genus Dieffenbachia comprises about 135
species, most of them present in South America. Colombia has the highest biodiversity with 37
species, followed by Ecuador with 34, Peru with 30, Brazil with 27, Panama with 20, and Costa
Rica with 13 (Croat 2004). Although toxicosis by D. picta in livestock is rare, the ingestion of its
leaves has caused intoxication in humans and pets. In dogs, the oxalates of D. picta can cause
severe inflammation and necrosis of the epithelium of the tongue and oral cavity and may even
cause death (Loretti et al. 2003). Besides calcium oxalates, D. picta contains proteolytic enzymes
that induce histamine release causing a severe inflammatory response that may lead to asphyxia
and death (Loretti et al. 2003). Other plants of the Araceae family common in Colombia are
Alocasia macrorrhiza (rascadera, bore, taro gigante), Caladium spp. (caladio, rascadera),
Monstera deliciosa (abalazo, balazo), and Philodendron spp. (balazo). With the exception of
Alocasia macrorrhiza, these plants are all native Allium cepa, which includes all types of onions,
is capable of causing toxicosis in both large and small animals due to its content of organic
sulfoxides, especially alkyl or alkenyl cysteinyl sulfoxides (Rae 1999, Parton 2000). After
ingestion, the organosul-foxides are transformed into a complex mixture of organic sulfur
compounds, some of which are capable of causing intravascular hemolysis in cattle, sheep, and

14. 7
horses. Onion toxicosis, which occurs sporadically in cattle in Colombia, has been extensively
documented in the literature with the first case reported in 1909 (Goldsmith 1909). The toxicosis
occurs because cattle readily eat onions and usually prefer them to high-quality forages or grains
(Rae 1999). The excessive intake of onions leads to hemolytic anemia and methemoglobinemia,
which develops within a week of onion ingestion. Clinical signs in cattle include diarrhea,
hemoglo-binuria, ataxia, and coma. Cattle are more sensitive than horses, and goats are the most
resistant. The hemolytic anemia caused by onion ingestion can also occur in dogs and cats (Parton
2000). Another plant that causes intravascular hemolysis is Brassica oleracea (col silvestre),
several varieties of which are used as forage for ruminants. B. oleracea contains the non-protein
amino acid S-methyl cysteinyl sulfoxide (SMCO), which is reduced in the rumen to dimethyl
disulfide, a hemolysin (Duncan and Milne 1993). The anemia induced by the intravascular
hemolysis may be lethal in cattle, which are very sensitive to the hemolytic effects of SMCO
(Prache 1994).
2.5 Plants Containing Substances That Cause Hepatocellular Necrosis
The PAs are a large group of hepatotoxins present in plants found, and PA toxicosis has been
reported in livestock, poultry, pigs, and humans in Colombia. Extensive literature reviews on the
chemistry, mechanism of action, and effects of PAs in animals and humans have been published
(Mattocks 1986, Diaz 2001, Fu et al. 2004, Rietjens et al. 2005). In general, PAs induce hepatocyte
necrosis that progresses to the destruction of the parenchymal cells of the organ and eventually to
liver failure. PAs are also potent carcinogens at levels below those causing hepatic necrosis. Even
though PAs are mainly hepatotoxic, some of them can also affect the lungs, especially
monocrotaline. More than 6,000 plants are believed to contain PAs, many of which are present in
Colombia in all kinds of ecosystems. The most important PA producing plants from the
toxicological standpoint belong to one of the families Asteracea, Fabaceae, or Boraginaceae.
Among the Asteraceae family (formerly known as Compositae) the most important hepatotoxic
genera are Senecio and Eupatorium. There are no reports of toxicosis in animals caused by this
plant; however, Senecio formosus has caused irreversible hepatic damage in human patients who
ingested infusions made with its dry leaves. The clinical history, symptoms, signs, lesions, and
postmortem findings of almost 20 fatal cases reported in Bogotá were documented by Toro et al.
(1997). Senecio madagascariensis is an annual or perennial herb native to South Africa reported

15. 8
for the first time in Colombia in the 1980s. It is an aggressive weed that propagates rapidly, and it
has already colonized all the high plateau of the departments of Cundinamarca and Boyacá
(Fernández-Alonso and Hernández-Schmidt 2007). Horses are highly sensitive to the PA of S.
madagascariensis and can even be intoxicated in utero. In Australia, Small et al. (1993) reported
a case where a foal exhibited growth retardation and jaundice at birth and died at 2 months of age
with liver damage. During gestation the mare was kept in a field heavily infested with S.
madagascariensis, which resulted in fetal exposure in utero. In Colombia, S. madagascariensis
has been associated with sudden death in cows immediately after parturition. The cause of this
sudden death syndrome is unknown, but it is possible that the metabolic changes associated with
parturition and the onset of lactation pose an extra load to a liver that has been severely affected
by the chronic ingestion of the plant. Burgueño-Tapia et al. (2001) analyzed S. madagascariensis
plants collected in Colombia and found that the plants contain chemical substances known as
calolides. However, the toxicological with plants from Australia or Hawaii although the
concentration was lower. The total concentration of PAs in samples from Australia, Hawaii, and
Colombia was 3,089, 2,133, and 805 μg/g, respectively. The major PAs found in the Colombian
samples were senecivernine, senecionine, integerreimine, mucronatinine, and usaramine (Gardner
and Diaz, 2009).
2.6 Plants That Cause Intrahepatic Cholestasis
Lantana camara (venturosa, sanguinaria, lantana) is a tree or bush of the Verbenaceae family
native to tropical America. In Colombia, it is a common plant in all ecosystems from sea level to
2,500 m elevation. The phytochemistry of L. camara is complex as it contains a wide variety of
chemical substances, including triterpenes, mono and sesquiterpenes, iridoid and phenyl ethanoid
glycosides, nafthoquinones, and flavonoids, among other compounds (Ghisalberti 2000, Sharma
and Sharma 2007). The hepatotoxic action of L. camara has been attributed to two pentacyclic
triterpenes known as lantadene A and B. The lantadene content in L. camara plants is variable,
and potentially toxic plants contain at least 80 and 200 mg/kg of lantadenes A and B, respectively
(Ghisalberti 2000). In practice, this is equivalent to a dosage of 40 g of fresh material per kilogram
of weight. Lantadenes are biotransformed by hepatic cytochrome P-450 enzymes into toxic
compounds that damage the bile canaliculi, producing intrahepatic cholestasis and impairment of
the normal flow of bile (Sharma and Sharma 2007). The primary toxic action of the lantadenes

16. 9
may result in secondary photosensitiza-tion due to the reduced excretion of phylloerythrin, a
natural metabolite product of the anaerobic fermentation of chlorophyll and normally excreted in
bile (Johnson 1982). Disruption in the biliary elimination of phylloerythrin increases its blood level
and deposition in subcutaneous tissues. In non-pigmented areas of the skin or in areas without dark
hair, phylloerythrin reacts with solar light, forming reactive molecules that damage the local tissue
causing erythema, edema, inflammation, and necrosis of the epidermis. Lantana camara toxicosis
can affect cattle, sheep, goats, horses, and buffaloes. Apart from L. camara, there are at least 14
species of Lantana present in Colombia (Bernal et al. 2006), whose toxicology and potential
adverse effects in animals have not been investigated. Plants that contain steroidal saponins may
also cause intrahepatic cholestasis in cattle but through a different mechanism of action than
lantadenes. The toxic effect of the steroidal saponins is related to their normal metabolism in the
rumen (Graydon et al. 1991). The first step in the metabolism of steroidal saponins is a rapid
hydrolysis in the rumen that releases the corresponding sugars and aglycones (sapogenins). The
sapogenins are then absorbed and transported to the liver where they are conjugated with
glucuronic acid and excreted in the bile. Once in the bile, they form insoluble calcium salts of
sapogenin glucuronate that precipitate inside and around the biliary ducts (Graydon et al. 1991).
These glucuronate crystals block the normal secretion of bile, which in turn disrupts the normal
secretion of phylloerythrin, the compound responsible for the secondary photosensitization. The
major sapogenin responsible for hepatogenous photosensitization is epismilagenine (Miles et al.
1992). Most of the plants that contain toxic levels of steroidal saponins in Colombia belong to the
Poaceae family (grasses) and include Brachiaria brizantha (pasto alambre), Brachiaria
decumbens (braquiaria), Panicum coloratum (pasto Klein), Panicum maximum (pasto guinea), and
Pennisetum clandestinum (kikuyo). Toxic effects have been reported but not confirmed.
Alternatively, B. brizantha and B. decumbens can also induce secondary photosensitization in
cattle, sheep, and goats due to hepatic damage from the hepatotoxic compound sporidesmin, a
mycotoxin produced by the fungus Pithomyces chartarum. This toxicosis has been observed
sporadically in Colombia. The mechanism of action of sporidesmin involves the formation of
reactive oxygen species that damage the biliary canaliculi (Morris et al. 2004). Sapindus saponaria
(chambimbe, jaboncillo, pepo) is a tree native to the tropical humid forests of Colombia (600-
2,000 m above sea level) that grows up to 12 m in height. In Colombia, ingestion of S. saponaria
by cattle has been associated with hepatotoxicity and photosensitization (Torres 1984b), which

17. 10
could be explained by its content of saponins (Tsuzuki et al. 2007). However, the toxic component
of S. saponaria to cattle is still not confirmed. Phytochemical studies conducted by Wahab and
Selim (1985) showed that this plant contains flavonoids (in leaves and twigs), tannins, essential
oils, anthraquinones (in twigs), β-sitosterol, α and β-amirin (in seeds), rutin, luteolin, and 4’-
methoxyflavon (in seeds and leaves). The saponins of S. saponaria are toxic to fish and have
traditionally been used by indigenous people for fishing (Quigley 1956). Trema micrantha
(Ulmaceae), a plant reported as hepatotoxic for horses and ruminants in Brazil (Gava et al. 2010),
occurs in Colombia where it is known as zurrumbo, majagua, verraquillo, and other names
depending on the geographical region (Bernal et al. 2006). Xanthium spp. (Asteraceae) containing
the hepatotoxic compound carboxyatractyloside (Witte et al. 1990) are also found in Colombia: X.
cavanillesii (cadillo), X. spinosum (casamarucha), and X. strumarium (cadillo, cardo) (Bernal et
al. 2006). However, no cases of toxicosis associated with these plants have been documented.
2.7 Plants That Affect the Urinary System
Urinary bladder tumors in cattle have been associated with the intake of Pteridium aquilinum
(helecho macho, helecho liso). This weedy plant found worldwide grows in well-drained, acid
soils and open lands and is common in the eastern part of Colombia. Cattle readily eat the plant
when it is still young; old plants are normally not eaten unless there are no other plants in the
pasture. This plant contains at least two important toxic components: a thiaminase capable of
destroying vitamin B1 and a mutagenic carcinogenic glycoside known as ptaquiloside (Smith
1997). In Colombia the toxicosis IJPPR, vol. 1, Fall 2011 9 by P. aquilinum has been mainly
associated with a disease in cattle known as bovine enzootic hematuria, which causes economic
losses in some Departments where dairy cattle are raised (Pedraza et al. 1983). The toxicosis results
from the chronic intake of ptaquiloside and its major sign is hematuria caused by the development
of multiple bleeding tumors in the bladder mucosa (Pedraza et al. 1983, Smith 1997). The
glycoside can be excreted in the milk (Alonso-Amelot et al. 1997) and in Costa Rica and
Venezuela, the intake of milk from cows feeding on P. aquilinum has been associated with an
increased incidence of gastric cancer (Alonso- Amelot 1997). The incidence of gastric cancer in
humans who consume milk from cows exposed to P. aquilinum has not been investigated in
Colombia. High levels of soluble oxalates that chemically correspond to sodium or potassium salts
of oxalic acid (Diaz 2001) are a common cause of plantinduced nephrotoxicity. Soluble oxalates

18. 11
are readily absorbed in the systemic circulation where they can react with blood calcium, causing
hypocalcemia and tetania. Oxalates eventually form insoluble calcium oxalate crystals that block
the renal tubules (James and Butcher 1972). Precipitation of calcium oxalate crystals in the kidney
leads to anuria, uremia, and acute renal failure. Soluble oxalate toxicosis is more common in
ruminants because the plants that contain them are usually more palatable and readily eaten
compared with plants containing insoluble oxalates. At postmortem examination there are edema
and hemorrhages of the ruminal mucosa and kidney inflammation (James and Butcher 1972). Most
of the soluble oxalate-accumulating plants of toxicological interest in Colombia belong to the
Poaceae (grasses), Amaranthaceae, and Polygonaceae families. Native or naturalized grasses
known to accumulate potentially toxic levels of soluble oxalates include Brachiaria humidicola
(braquiaria alambre), Cenchrus ciliaris (pasto buffel), Digitaria decumbens (pasto pangola),
Panicum maximum (pasto guinea, india, siempreverde), Pennisetum clandestinum (kikuyo),
Pennisetum purpureum (pasto elefante), and Setaria sphacelata (setaria, pasto miel). In horses,
prolonged intake of tropical grasses containing soluble oxalates can lead to secondary
hyperparathyroidism or osteodystrophia fibrosa (Cheeke 1995). This problem is caused by reduced
calcium absorption from the gut due to the reaction of the soluble oxalate with the dietary calcium,
forming calcium oxalate. Levels of 0.5 percent or more soluble oxalate in forage grasses may cause
nutritional hyperparathyroidism in horses, while levels of 2 percent or more may cause acute
toxicosis in ruminants (Cheeke 1995). The oxalate content in grasses is highest during rapid
growth, such as after the onset of the rainy season, and may reach levels of 6 percent or more dry
weight. However, soluble oxalate toxicosis has not been documented in Colombia.
2.8 Treatment of Poisoned Livestock by Toxic Plants
Plant poisoning is mostly an emergency and needs to be managed immediately with proper
measures using specific anti dotes whenever possible. However, in majority of poisoning cases
treatment with an antidote is not possible due to lack of confirmative diagnosis. In acute poisonings
first of all truly emergency phases should be managed to improve condition of the animal by
providing appropriate supportive care to ensure its survival (Freehand and Janzen 1974). For this
reason, focus on prompt removal or the neutralization of poison whilst maintaining vital function
of the body restoring respiration by giving artificial respiration and/ or drugs acting on
cardiovascular system, CNS stimulants, emetics etc. depending on the clinical state of the patient

19. 12
or animal until slow acting and specific treatment is instituted (Satish, 2002) Treatment of
poisoning are of two types: specific treatment which includes antidote, is given when there is
confirmatory diagnosis of the poisoning. Antidotes are therapeutic agents that have a specific
action against the activity or effect of toxicant. Although no classification scheme is available,
antidotes can be broadly classified as chemical or pharmacologic antidotes. Chemical antidotes
specifically interact with or neutralize toxicants. In some cases, antidotes need to be compounded
by the veterinarian or a compounding pharmacy. This is particularly true for large animal antidotes
such as CaNa2EDTA (Post and Keller, 2000).
2.9 Control and Prevention of Plant Poisoning
The key to preventing problems with poisonous plants is proper identification and avoidance of
these plants. Examination of pasture, hay fields, road sides and fence rows poisonous plants has
paramount significance. In a drought year or a year when a feed is short, taking extra precaution
and looking for these plants in new areas planned for grazing or haying (Roger et al., 2007).
Livestock under condition of adequate feed will avoid most poisonous plants. However, when feed
is short, plants normally avoided become a tempting source of feed that ends up in poisoning of
livestock. Good range management is one of the effective ways to combat the danger of plant
poisoning in the area. A healthy and well managed pasture is the best way to prevent weed
infestations. Fencing off infested areas and eradication by uprooting may also be effective (Agaie,
2007).

20. 13
CHAPTER THREE: MATERIAL AND METHODS
3.1 Study area
The study was conducted from May 2019 to June 2019 in and around Sheikh town. Sheikh, also
known as Sheikhh, is a town in the north-western Sahil province of Somaliland. The peri-urban
area of the city is featured by mixed livestock-crop production where livestock plays an important
role. It is situated 70 km north of Burao. The town lies at a relatively lofty altitude of 1, 470m in
the Golis Range, a mountainous escarpment that separates the coastal plain from the main Somali
Plateau. It has a semi-arid climate, with a temperature ranging from 21 °C and 25°C and the
difference in precipitation between the driest month and the wettest month is 110 mm. The
population of the city is estimated to be 25, 000 based upon the latest presidential election. The
figure below shows the Map of the study area.
Figure 1: Map of study area

21. 14
3.2 Study population
The target study population was voluntary animal owners and animal health practitioners. A total
of 200 individuals were interviewed in which convenience method was employed.
3.3 Study design
A cross-sectional study was conducted on 200 animal owners and animal health practitioners.
3.4 Sampling method
Questionnaire survey was carried out by interviewing voluntary animal owners and animal health
practitioners. For this study, structured questionnaire was designed to collect information related
to plant poisoning in livestock in the study area.
3.5 Data storage and analysis
The information that was gathered through questionnaire survey of suspected toxic plants was
entered to Microsoft Excel program. The data was analysed using Microsoft Excel 2013.

22. 15
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS
In the present study 200 individuals (130 livestock owners and 70 animal health practitioners) were
interviewed using structured questionnaires. The respondents were from 7 villages from Sheikh
District using convenient method of sampling.
From the 200 individuals interviewed, 50.0% of were males and 50.0% were females. Almost half
of the respondents (42.5%) had an age group of 25-35 years. Below figure 2 and 3 summarizes
demographic characteristics of the respondents.
Figure 2: Gender of the respondents
Figure 3: Age group of respondents in percentage
42%
34%
24%
Age group of respondents in %
25-35 years old
36-46 years old
47 years or
older
50.00% 50.00%
0.00%
10.00%
20.00%
30.00%
40.00%
50.00%
60.00%
Male Female
Percentage

23. 16
Majority of the respondents (58.0%) assesses pointed out that they know poisonous plants in their
environment, while 42.0% (n=200) indicated that they don’t know any poisonous plants present
in their environment.
On the other hand, dry season was identified by the respondents as a season during which animal
poisoning is most common as indicated in figure 4 below.
Figure 4: Season which animal poisoning is most common
Majority of the respondents (57.8%) said they do not attempt any treatment in case of their animals
get poisoned while 42.2 % use traditional medicine to treat a poisonous case. On the other hand,
82% of the respondents consume the meat of poisoned animals as indicated in figure 5 below.
83.62%
8.62%
7.76%
Percentage
Dry Season Rainy season All seasons

24. 17
Figure 5: Consumption of meat of poisoned animal
More than half of the respondents (81%) do not consult any veterinarian when livestock poisoned
occur. Only 19% have said they seek consultation from veterinarian when they suspect a poisonous
case.
The questionnaire revealed that camel are the major animals affected by the poisonous plants
(57%) followed by shoats (23%). According to the respondent’s cattle were the least animal
species affected by the poisonous plants (20%).
Majority of the respondents (80%) reported that their animals consume poisonous plants because
of feed scarcity during drought seasons, while the remaining 20% said their animals consume
poisonous plants because they don’t have past experience.
A total of 42 plants were complained having poisonous effect on livestock by livestock owners
and animal health practitioners. In addition, respondents were asked to identify and name the 42
poisoned plants they know mentioning the local name, manifested signs and affected species. The
result of this naming and identification is indicated in annex 1.
82%
18%
DO YOU CONSUME THE MEAT OF POISONED
ANIMAL
Yes No

25. 18
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION
Half of the respondents (50%) interviewed were females as contrary to the findings of Ridwan
(2015) who reported that 81% of the respondents were males. On the other hand, the 42.5% of the
respondents aged between 25-35 years old. This results opposes that of Ridwan (2015) who
recorded that 33.3% of the respondents aged between 51-60 years old.
Majority of the respondents (58.0%) assesses pointed out that they know poisonous plants in their
environment, while 42.0% (n=200) indicated that they don’t know any poisonous plants present
in their environment. The high percentage of respondents who don’t know any poisonous plants
in their environment could be due to their young age and lack of exposure to indigenous
knowledge.
According to this study, dry season is the season during which animal poisonous is most common.
The result is in line with that of Abera et al (2015) who concluded that plant toxicoses is at its peak
during dry season (62.7%). This may be due to the lack of availability of other plant species in
this particular season.
Majority of the respondents (57.8%) do not attempt any treatment in case of their animals get
poisoned. Only 42.2% treat the cases of plant toxicoses using traditional treatment. This result
disagrees with Kebede et al (2015) who reported high percentage of respondents (95.2%) who
attempt treatment when plant toxicoses occur. This could be due to lack of availability of
veterinary infrastructure in the study areas. On the other hand, the high percentage of respondents
(81%) who don’t seek veterinary consultation could be due to the local believe that a poisoned
case cannot be treated.
The result shows that 82% of the respondents consume the meat of poisoned animals. This could
be due to the widespread believe that poison is killed by fire. There is a local believe among
farmers which is if they cook the meat of poisoned animal, the poison will disappear.
Among the top mentioned pre-disposing factor that expose animals for plant toxicoses in the study
area was feed shortage This finding is in line with that of (Kebede et al., 2015; Seifert, 1969;
Radostits et al., 2007; Adediwura and Kola, 2012; Abera et al., 2014).

26. 19
This current study reveals that camel are the major animals affected by the poisonous plants (57%)
followed by shoats (23%). According to the respondent’s cattle were the least animal species
affected by the poisonous plants (20%). This study is in agreement as that of Ridwan (2015) who
reported a high percentage of camel toxicoses case.
A total of 42 plants were complained having poisonous effect on livestock by livestock owners
and animal health practitioners in this survey study as shown in Annex 1. However, dhicir,
ruqumbaa, ciin, badhibeeto, salamac and xudey were the most frequently complained toxic
plants in the study areas.
The respondents reported that they can suspect a poisonous case when they see, sudden death,
gastrointestinal sings; such as diarrhea, bloating, abdominal discomfort, neurological sings; such
as loss of coordination,, respiratory signs; such as difficult in breathing and hemorrhage,
lacrimation, eye loss. This present findings is compatible with that of Ridwan (2015) and Abera
et al, (2017) who reported a similar signs for toxicoses cases.

27. 20
CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
In general, based on the results of present study, it is possible to conclude that, plant poisoning is
one of the livestock health problems in and around Sheikh District.
Out of the 42 identified poisonous plants, Ficussalicifolia, Sorghum bicola, Pavetta venenata,
Datura Stramonium and Latana camara were the most commonly incriminated poisonous plants
in the study area. The predisposing factors for the occurrence of plant poisoning were identified to
be caused mainly by feed shortage.
Furthermore, majority of the respondents do not attempt any treatment for the toxicoses cases.
This could be due to lack of veterinary services in the study area or lack of knowledge of whether
a toxicoses case can be treated. The current livestock farming in Sheikh District is dominated by
young individuals who may not have enough experience of indigenous knowledge practiced by
their elders.
Depending on the result of present study, the following recommendations were forwarded:
 Providing livestock supplement feed during drought seasons to avoid the exposure to plant
poisoning while searching for feeds.
 Preventing livestock from grazing the pasture known to be infested by poisonous plants.
 When harvesting feed for livestock, it should be carefully inspected before feeding for
contamination with potentially toxic weeds.
 Livestock owners should be advised to remove the toxic plants from the pasture land.
 Further toxicology study to reduce livestock exposure and further research to determine
the toxicogenic ingredients of the plants should be conducted.

28. 21
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32. 25
ANNEX ONE: Summary of complained poisonous plants with their local and scientific names,
manifested signs and affected species
1. Somali name Scientific name Toxicosis Species
affected
Picture
2. Ubaateys Desmidorchi
s edithiae
Sudden death All
speice
s
3. Dhicir Ficussalicifol
ia
Loss of eyes
Sudden death
camel

33. 26
4. Ciin Euphorbia
nubica
Loss of eyes Camel
5. Ruqumbaa Pavetta
venenata
Suden death Camel
and
shoats
6. Qaadhaadhe
yte
Pain in the
stomach
camel
7. Qaydar Pus in the
abdoman
Shoats

34. 27
8. Badhibeeto Ipomoea
marmorata
Depression
Staggering gait
Muscle tremor
Nervousness
Death
shoats
9. Dhali Sudden death camel
10. Madax kurta Death camel
11. Jilbo dhiig Jatropha sp. Blood with
urine
camel

35. 28
12. Berdaha Ficus vasta Loss of eyes All
speicei
s
13. Waabey Acokanthera
schimperi
Diarrhea shoats
14. Dhaara-
madaow
Shake the tail Shoats

36. 29
15. Salamac Cadia
purpurea
Inco-ordination
Staggering gait
Muscle tremor
Recumbency
Blood urine
death
Cattle
and
sheep
16. Gombor Capparis
Tomentosa
Staggering
weakness of the
hind limbs
Wry-neck
Camel
17. Xudey Commiphora
playfairii
Boodly
diarrhea
Kids,
small
camel

37. 30
18. Jadeenyo Brbeya
oleoides
Shweinf.
Paralysis
Salivation
Sudden death
shoats
19. Booc Calatropis
procera
Salivation,
death
Cattle
,camel
20. Carmo Cissus sp Bloat shoats
21. Dacarta
dhegweyn
Aloe
megalacanth
a
Blaot Shoats

38. 31
22. Baahiye Croton
cliffordii
Recumbence
Forth of the
mouth
Camel
Shoats
Cattle
23. Jow-jowle Death camel
24. Haanwelis Pterodiscus
undulates
As post mortem
there is water
between the
skin and the
meet
camel
25. Xaqiiqaro Abortion Shoats
26. Irigin Euphorbia
nubica
Loss of eyes Camel
Gaots

39. 32
27. Qadow Boscia
coriacea
Sudden death at
the early
raining season
Shoats
28. Likaadi Death camel
29. Gabgabood Iphionopsis
rotundifolia
Paralysis shoats
30. Gargaro paspalidum
desertorum
Bloat shoats
31. Lidiq/nidiq Ficus
populifolia
Diarrhea shoats
32. Xasaadin Euphorbia
grandis
Death Shoats
camel
33. Buqurdhaa Diarrhea shoats

40. 33
34. xabow Diarrhoea camel
35. Hiraanhiriye Atropine
group
Nervous sign
Convulsion
Paralysis
anoxia
shoats
36. Mooh Datura
stamonium
Depression
Nervous sign
Diarrhea
Salivation
cattle
37. Geed saliid Ricinus
communis
Bloating
Salivation
Shoats

41. 34
38. Ali faranji Latana
camara
Photosensitizati
on
Bovin
e
39. Dhalaan
la’aaye
Sudden death Small
childre
n
kids
40. Nerium
oleander
Diarrhoea
Salivation
Nervousness
Death
Sheep
Cattle

42. 35
41. Solanum
glaucophyllu
m.
Weight loss
Stiff gait
Lameness
Shoats
42. Senna
occidentalis.
Diarrhoea
Muscle
weakness
Restless
Recumbence
Shoats

43. 36
ANNEX TWO: Questionnaire
Code___________________
KNOWLEDGE ASSESSMENT OF PLANT POISONOUS IN LIVESTOCK IN SHEIKH
DISTRICT, SOMALILAND
Date of the interview(dd/mm/YY)
District Sheikh
Region Sahil
Name of interviewer Mohamed Ismail
SECTION ONE
Name of the respondent
Age of the respondent
Gender of the respondent
SECTION TWO
1. Do you know any plants that cause livestock poisoning in your area.
a) Yes [ ]
b) No [ ]
2. If yes, how many types/species do you know? Mention their names and the species
affected?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

44. 37
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3. Which season animal poisoning is most common.
a) Rainy season [ ]
b) Dry season [ ]
4. Which animal species are mostly affected by poisonous plants?
a) Cattle [ ]
b) Camel [ ]
c) Sheep and goat [ ]
5. How do you recognize if the animal is poisoned?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
6. Do you attempt any treatment in case your animal is poisoned? If no jump to question 10
a) Yes [ ]
b) No [ ]
7. Which treatment you do you use?
a) Traditional treatment [ ]
b) Modern treatment [ ]

45. 38
8. If traditional treatment, mention the type of ethno-veterinary medicine you practice?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
9. If modern treatment, which drugs do you use specifically?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
10. If the animals die from the poisoning, do you consume their meat?
a) Yes [ ]
b) No [ ]
11. Do you consult any veterinarians in case of livestock poisoning?
a) Yes [ ]

46. 39
b) No [ ]
12. As far as you know, why animals consume poisonous plants.
a) Because they don’t have past experience [ ]
b) Because of feed scarcity during drought seasons [ ]
c) Other causes [ ]