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Describe the three most well-known types of ethical decision making and the four dilemmas that each engender. Why do these matter to the leader in his or her own ethical perspectives? Solution Three Broad Types of Ethical Theory: Ethical theories are often broadly divided into three types: i) Consequentialist theories, which are primarily concerned with the ethical consequences of particular actions; ii) Non- consequentialist theories, which tend to be broadly concerned with the intentions of the person making ethical decisions about particular actions; and iii) Agent-centered theories, which, unlike consequentialist and non-consequentialist theories, are more concerned with the overall ethical status of individuals, or agents, and are less concerned to identify the morality of particular actions. Each of these three broad categories contains varieties of approaches to ethics, some of which share characteristics across the categories. Below is a sample of some of the most important and useful of these ethical approaches. i.) Consequentialist Theories: The Utilitarian Approach Utilitarianism can be traced back to the school of the Ancient Greek philosopher Epicurus of Samos (341-270 BCE), who argued that the best life is one that produces the least pain and distress. The 18th Century British philosopher Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) applied a similar standard to individual actions, and created a system in which actions could be described as good or bad depending upon the amount and degree of pleasure and/or pain they would produce. Bentham’s student, John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) modified this system by making its standard for the good the more subjective concept of “happiness,” as opposed to the more materialist idea of “pleasure.” Utilitarianism is one of the most common approaches to making ethical decisions,especially decisions with consequences that concern large groups of people, in part because it instructs us to weigh the different amounts of good and bad that will be produced by our action. This conforms to our feeling that some good and some bad will necessarily be the result of our action and that the best action will be that which provides the most good or does the least harm, or, to put it another way, produces the greatest balance of good over harm. Ethical environmental action, then, is the one that produces the greatest good and does the least harm for all who are affected—government, corporations, the community, and the environment. The Egoistic Approach One variation of the utilitarian approach is known as ethical egoism, or the ethics of self- interest. In this approach, an individual often uses utilitarian calculation to produce the greatest amount of good for him or herself. Ancient Greek Sophists like Thrasymacus (c. 459-400 BCE), who famously claimed that might makes right, and early modern thinkers like Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) may be considered forerunners of this approach. One of the most influential recent proponents of.

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Duties and Imperatives The Ethics of Conflict Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) Remained his whole life in Königsberg (eastern Prussia). Famous for his three Critiques: of “pure reason,” “practical reason,” and “judgment”. Proposes a duty-based, universal, “deontological” theory of ethics. Thought of morality and nature, values and facts as distinct. Moral Agency Kant insists that it is only the presence of a “good will” that makes any act morally valuable. He rejects rival theories that locate moral worth primarily in: a) virtue, b) happiness, or c) sympathy. Kant’s position is called “deontological” (from the Greek deon, “what must be”) and focuses on absolute moral duties. It is opposed, classically to utilitarian (more broadly consequentialist) theories of ethics, which focus on good results. Four basic mental powers According to Kant there are four basic human mental powers: sensibility, imagination, understanding, and reason. Sensibility and imagination are, respectively, capacities to be affected by and to bring together impressions from physical objects. Understanding is the capacity to use concepts to organize the sense impressions that reach the mind via the senses. Reason, as distinct from the understanding, is the mind’s ability to be guided by abstract ideas such as goodness, freedom, and God. Reason and human nature Kant makes the traditional assumption of western philosophy: reason is both essential and unique to human beings. Whereas “understanding” is the human capacity for knowledge of nature (science), “reason” is the human capacity for being moral. Kant insists that the test of true morality is an individual’s ability to rise above self-interest for the sake of the rational moral community. Reason is what makes each of us human, and being moral is the deliberate and consistent exercise of our rational capacity. Morality resides “within” Kant’s ethics is undoubtedly influenced by pietism: a religious movement within Lutheranism highlighting intense individual faith. This influence may account to some degree for Kant’s idea that morality resides in individual good will and strict duty. While Kant as an Enlightenment figure celebrated and added to scientific insights into nature, he saw morality a matter of humanity’s “inner” truth. But this inner truth consists in everyone respecting and acting according to universal moral law. Kant strives to be the Newton of morality. Hence the paradox: morality is individual conviction following universal law. The solitary moral hero Caspar David Friedrich, Wanderer Above a Sea of Fog (1818) Questions Why does Kant see the “good will” as the only source of pure moral worth? Does Kant imply that an ethical agent should be unconcerned with human happiness? What sense does it make to locate in human reason the capacity to be moral? If morality is always a question of “good will,” how can we know when anyone is being truly moral? Pure Practical Reaso ...

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Answer FOUR questions. Each question is worth 10 points. 1. What are some of the features of Plato’s theory of justice as set out in his Republic? How can these features of justice be applied to the opposed views on distributive justice according to the positions developed by Rawls and Nozick? 2. Explain Aristotle’s three-way distinction of human action as a) voluntary, b) involuntary and c) non-voluntary. Give examples of each kind of action. How can Aristotle’s theory of human agency be applied to the three models of punishment: retributivism, deterrence, and rehabilitation. 3. Explain the nature and role of ‘moral sentiment’ in Hume’s outline of morality. What role, if any, is played by reason in Hume’s account of moral action? In light of Hume’s theory, reconstruct the debate between Singer and Arthur. 4. Explain Kant’s two formulations of the ‘categorical imperative’ according to a) universalizability and b) non-instrumentalization. How might these formulations be applied to the question of preemptive international conflict. Give examples to illustrate these applications. 5. What is Mill’s concept of the basic ethical principle according to utilitarianism and what is his proof of this principle? What are Mill’s views on the freedom of speech and thought and how do these shed light on the debate about pornography between Altman and Brison? Duties and Imperatives The Ethics of Conflict Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) Remained his whole life in Königsberg (eastern Prussia). Famous for his three Critiques: of “pure reason,” “practical reason,” and “judgment”. Proposes a duty-based, universal, “deontological” theory of ethics. Thought of morality and nature, values and facts as distinct. Moral Agency Kant insists that it is only the presence of a “good will” that makes any act morally valuable. He rejects rival theories that locate moral worth primarily in: a) virtue, b) happiness, or c) sympathy. Kant’s position is called “deontological” (from the Greek deon, “what must be”) and focuses on absolute moral duties. It is opposed, classically to utilitarian (more broadly consequentialist) theories of ethics, which focus on good results. Four basic mental powers According to Kant there are four basic human mental powers: sensibility, imagination, understanding, and reason. Sensibility and imagination are, respectively, capacities to be affected by and to bring together impressions from physical objects. Understanding is the capacity to use concepts to organize the sense impressions that reach the mind via the senses. Reason, as distinct from the understanding, is the mind’s ability to be guided by abstract ideas such as goodness, freedom, and God. Reason and human nature Kant makes the traditional assumption of western philosophy: reason is both essential and unique to human beings. Whereas “understanding” is the human capacity for knowledge of nature (science), “reason” is the human capacity for being mora.

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Guidance Utilitarianism: Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill Utilitarianism associates the notion of “good” in relation to “happiness” or “pleasure,” if we can understand these words in the widest possible sense. See below for Bentham's appeal to "pain and pleasure" as the "masters" of humankind. This view of what is “good” is referred to as “hedonism.” Hedonism is a word which some may be familiar with in a negative, pejorative sense. This is not surprising, since the idea of “hedonism” have long been used disparagingly as a charge against people who seem to seek their own pleasure, without concern for the welfare or interests of others. Concern for happiness or pleasure does not need to be taken in such a narrow way. Many religious traditions from Buddhism, Christianity (particularly the “Puritans” who immigrated to the Americas from England) and Islam, amongst others, have emphasized denial of bodily pleasure and enjoyment, preferring sacrifice of self and denial of the body as ideals, making the idea of “hedonism” as source for ethical judgment seem contradictory to many people. These religious traditions tend to portray the pursuit of pleasure as “sinful,” distracting from what they take to be more important pursuits like worshiping of a God, or preparation for death. But even many versions of these religious traditions also seek or promise some form of “happiness” or “pleasure” to those who follow their ways (though, such happiness is often supposedly found in another realm after death.) The joys or pleasures we seek are not always the immediate product of our actions. We may in fact choose to do less than pleasant things for the sake of achieving some sought goal, which will then bring about happiness. We might consider the example of going to the dentist and getting our teeth drilled as one such activity. *(Note, I would like to contend from my own experience that if one uses local anesthesia and has a competent dentist, there shouldn't really be pain involved.) The following excerpt from the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy adds some important, general considerations regarding the philosophy of utilitarianism: "utilitarianism is generally held to be the view that the morally right action is the action that produces the most good. There are many ways to spell out this general claim. One thing to note is that the theory is a form of consequentialism: the right action is understood entirely in terms of consequences produced. What distinguishes utilitarianism from egoism has to do with the scope of the relevant consequences. On the utilitarian view one ought to maximize the overall good — that is, consider the good of others as well as one's own good. The classical utilitarians, Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, identified the good with pleasure, so, like Epicurus, were hedonists about value. They also held that we ought to maximize the good, that is, bring about ‘the greatest amount of good for the greatest number’. Utili ...

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13. (JULY 31, 1912 – NOVEMBER 16, 2006) Milton Friedman

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