This document provides an overview of different qualitative analysis methods, including content analysis, discourse analysis, thematic analysis, grounded theory, and phenomenological analysis. It discusses the key aspects of each method, such as typical data sources, coding approaches, and limitations. For example, content analysis involves categorizing and counting qualitative data, discourse analysis examines meaning and language use, and grounded theory aims to develop a theory or model grounded in systematically analyzed data. The document also contrasts qualitative and quantitative approaches and addresses issues of research quality and paradigms.

1. Leverhulme 1
Overview of differentOverview of different
Qualitative AnalysisQualitative Analysis
MethodsMethods
Dr. Anne Adams
anne.adams@open.ac.uk

2. Leverhulme 2
OVERVIEWOVERVIEW
• Paradigm background (research onion)
• Analysis Methods
– Content Analysis
– Discourse Analysis
– Thematic Analysis
– Grounded Theory
– Phenomenological Analysis
– Research Quality and Action Research

3. Leverhulme 3
RESEARCH PARADIGM

4. Leverhulme 4
Analysis paradigm
• Crotty (1998) rigorous = identify / defend
research strategy decisions
• Adams et al (2008) rigour from appropriate
identification and application of methods
according to research questions
• Reflexivity essential to maintain research
rigour

5. Qualititative methodsQualititative methods
• In-depth Interviews,
• Focus groups,
• Observational / ethnographic studies,
• Open ended data (system logs)
• Data transcribed

6. QUANT / QUAL Comparison
Quantitative approaches Qualitative approaches
'Simple' numeric data 'Complex' rich data
Measurement Meaning
Explanation Understanding
Prediction Interpretation
Generalisable account Contextual account
Representative population sample Purposive/ representative
perspective sample
Hypothesis-testing Exploratory
Claims objectivity Accepts subjectivity
Closed system
(experimental control)
Open system
(ecological validity)

7. Qualitative / Quantitative DivideQualitative / Quantitative Divide
Research is like fishing
Quantitative methods
• You find the best river for the fish you
want, you have one line, a specific bait for
a specific type of fish.
Qualitative methods
• You may want to catch tuna so you fish
in certain parts of the sea BUT on the
whole you throw your nets out to sea and
catch everything including the things you
want and don’t want.

8. Qualitative Analysis MethodsQualitative Analysis Methods
• Conversational / Discourse Analysis
• Thematic Analysis / Grounded Theory
• Content Analysis / Critical Incident Analysis
• counting
• imposing established frameworks
“Both qualitative and quantitative approaches
share a common concern with theory as the goal
of research” (Henwood & Pidgeon, 1992 p.101)

9. Leverhulme 9
Quantitative methodsQuantitative methods
• Experiments
• Questionnaires
• System logs (producing data for
statistical analysis)

10. Leverhulme 10
Research Paradigms:Research Paradigms:
QuantitativeQuantitative
• Imposes prior theories (discovery)
• Reliant on hypothetico-deductive
method to establish causal
relationship (justification)
o Operationalised (reductionistic)
o Measured

11. Leverhulme 11
Research Paradigms:Research Paradigms:
Quantitative LimitationsQuantitative Limitations
• Validity
o Inappropriate fixing of meanings
o Imposing external system of meaning
for internal subjective structures
• Complexity of data lost through
reductionistic approach

12. Leverhulme 12
Qualititative methodsQualititative methods
• In-depth Interviews
• Focus groups
• Observational / studies
• Open ended data

13. Leverhulme 13
Research Paradigms:Research Paradigms:
QualitativeQualitative
• Generates working hypothesis by
producing concepts from data
• Represents participants reality in
its complex context

14. Leverhulme 14
Research Paradigms:Research Paradigms:
Qualitative LimitationsQualitative Limitations
• Subjectivity
o Data collection procedures
o Analysis
• Reliability
o Across context & researcher

15. Leverhulme 15
The research onion: TEL / HCI

16. Leverhulme 16
TEL example : Juxtalearn
• An Educational design project in field of TEL
• HCI perspective connects computing and education
• ‘in the wild’ practice based perspective to TEL see Adams et
al (2013, 2014) expanded in Fitgerald et al (2015)
• Research onion simplified - Four main research
epistemologies & related methods: overlay of TEL & HCI
• Juxtalearn inspired by action research and design-based
approaches from a ‘pragmatic’ perspective.
• But used both qualitative and quantitative analysis methods to
mixed method data collection. Grounded Theory Analysis.

17. Leverhulme 17
Content Analysis
• Quantitative analysis of qualitative data
• Counting instances
• Either using pre-existing coding framework
or creating one (problems with both).
• Careful to apply this it needs linked to other
analysis methods (neither quant nor qual)

18. Leverhulme 18
Content Analysis Coding
• Take data
• Categorise data – often with pre-determined
models, frameworks and coding schemes
• Code the data according to category
• Count the data – instances of the data

19. Leverhulme 19
Example of coding Units
Unit Examples
Word social engagement words
Theme occasions of social engagement
Item whole accounts of SE
Character different characters roles in SE
Time & Space space & time-logs in blog spent
on SE activities

20. Leverhulme 20
Discourse Analysis
• Very different from other forms of QA
• In pure form: based on meaning and language
used – for that ‘discourse’
• From a Radical constructivist approach (e.g.
discourse action model)
• Memories not facts but socially
reconstructions
• Pure: naturally occurring talk
• Need to fully understand philosophy to use it

21. Leverhulme 21
Discourse Analysis Coding
• TEL: specific impact of technology on the
discourse e.g. virtual reality impact on
learning speech
• Code every utterance, gaps, breaths
• Identify language usage: plays, stock
phrases, how language is used
• Not understanding of the concepts generally

22. Leverhulme 22
Sections of code
4. [J.H.] you are black or Asian you cannot join (.) this national (.)
political party
5. (.) slightly different I think from the metropolitan police black
6. Officers association wouldn’t you say?
7. (.)
8. [N.G.] I don’t think it’s different in the slightest because as the
simple fact
9. is as I say that white police officers couldn’t set up an
association
10. Of their own er if for instance they feel they’re being
Overlooked for
11. ap-prom for promotion so every different ethic group er in
12. this (.) multicultural multiethic society that our
Coolican, 2014

23. Leverhulme 23
Thematic Analysis
• Data gathering and analysis approach
• Understanding drawn from the data
• Recognise limitations but not based on
specific epistemology (many data types)
• Can be used to provide generic
understanding but limited application to
theory building

24. Leverhulme 24
Thematic Analysis Coding
• 1- familiarise with data
• 2 – generatie initial codes
• 3 – search for themes
• 4 – review themes
• 5 – define and name themes

25. Leverhulme 25
Example of Blog code
Coolican, 2014

26. Leverhulme 26
Grounded Theory
• Analysis grounded in the data
• Mixed methods data – quant and qual
• 1st
stages similar to TA
• Systematic merging of mixed data
• Development of a ‘theory’ (also models)
• Process pushes analysis of rouge / awkward
data to reveal ‘novel findings’

27. Leverhulme 27
Grounded Theory Coding
• Open coding – line by line (as with TA)
• Memo writing – capturing insights for
theory
• Axial coding – linkages between categories
• Selective Coding – important themes ‘high-
level storyline.
• Process effects – conditions, actins, effects
effect relationships in a process

28. Leverhulme 28
Example process effect model
4
1
3
IS
TRUST
privacy secured
based on
assumptions
Users
IR
Contexts
IU
Technology & its implementation make
assumptions inaccurate
Increased perceived privacy invasions
2
Decreased trust in organisation
Emotive reaction Reject technology

29. Leverhulme 29
Phenomenological Analysis
Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis (IPA)
• The individuals ‘experience’ events
• Individuals perspective on and understanding
in the world.
• Understands constructivist role of researcher
in interpreting individual experience.
• Unlike DA takes what people say as realistic
account (semi-structured interviews)

30. Leverhulme 30
IPA coding
• Read text ‘eyeball it’
• Comments on transcripts (varied in size and
length)
• Interpretations / analysists reactions /
recurrent points / queries about meaning
• Identify themes (hierarchical themes)
• Compare and contrast themes

31. Good Quality Research
• Henwood / Pidgeon (1992)– good
quality research
• 7 golden rules of good quality research
• Exploratory (discovery) –
reductionistic (justification)
• Not Divide but to compliment
• ISSUES OF BIAS

32. Levels in research
PLAN: Background research & planning
ACT and /or OBSERVE
REFLECT: Implications / Discussion
Initial QUESTION?

33. Action Research & Levels
PLAN: Background research & planning
ACT and /or OBSERVE
REFLECT: Implications / Discussion
Initial QUESTION?
PLANNING courses, teaching
activities
REFLECT on Changes to current
practices
CONDUCTING EVERYDAY
ACTIONS (E.G. Teaching)

34. Action Research & Exploratory
Research
PLAN
REFLECT ACTACT
OBSERVE
What is my
question?

35. Action Research (2)
Plan
Reflect Act
Observe
Initial
Question
Plan
Reflect Act
Observe
Further
Question

36. Leverhulme 36
References
Adams, A., FitzGerald, E. and Priestnall, G. (2013). Of catwalk technologies and boundary creatures.
ACM Transactions of Computer-Human Interaction, 20(3), article no. 15. download pre-print from:
http://oro.open.ac.uk/35323/
Adams, Anne and Cox, Anna L. (2008). Questionnaires, in-depth interviews and focus groups. In: Cairns,
Paul and Cox, Anna L. eds. Research Methods for Human Computer Interaction. Cambridge, UK:
Cambridge University Press, pp. 17–34. download from : http://oro.open.ac.uk/11909/
Adams, Anne; Lunt, Peter and Cairns, Paul (2008). A qualititative approach to HCI research. In: Cairns,
Paul and Cox, Anna eds. Research Methods for Human-Computer Interaction. Cambridge, UK:
Cambridge University Press, pp. 138–157. download from : http://oro.open.ac.uk/11911/
Coolican, H (2014) Research methods and statistics in psychology. Psychology press, NY.
Crotty, M.J. (1998) The Foundations of Social Research: Meaning and Perspective in the Research
Process. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
FitzGerald, E. and Adams, A. (2015). Revolutionary and evolutionary technology design processes in
location-based interactions. International Journal of Mobile Human Computer Interaction, 7(1) pp. 59–
78. download from : http://oro.open.ac.uk/42067/
Henwood, K. L., & Pidgeon, N. F. (1992): “Qualitative research and psychological theorising.” British
Journal of Psychology. 83, 1, pp. 97-111.
Saunders, M., Lewis, P. and Thornhill, A. (2012) Research Methods for Business Students, 6th edition.
Harlow: Pearson Education Ltd