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1. NAME : GILLIAN CHONG YEONG LIN
STUDENT ID NUMBER : 0323941
SUBJECT : SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY30203)
TUTORIAL GROUP : MONDAY 8AM-10AM
SUBMISSION DATE : 30th
NOVEMBER 2015
TOTAL WORDS: 5,474

2. Social Psychologyisdefinedinthe OxfordAdvance Learner’sDictionaryasthe branchof
psychologythatdealswithsocial interactions,includingtheiroriginsand theireffectsonan
individual.Throughthissubject,Iam able tolearnaboutexploring the interactionof anindividual
personanda givensituation.
The firstlecture I attended,taughtme the definite meaningof Social Psychology,which
wasn’tclearto me before.Ialsolearntthatthere wasa total of 3 keyareas andaspectsof interestin
Social Psychologywhichis social perception,influence,andinteraction.
Afterunderstandingthe mainareasof Social Psychology.We were briefedaboutthe
meaningtothe words.The termsocial perceptionfromwhatI’ve learntinthe lecture means
formingan impressionof othersbasedonall availableinformationathand. Next,social influence is
the processwhere one’sthoughtsandactionsare affectedbyothers.Lastly,social interactionmeans
the relationshipof twoormore individuals.
Social Psychologyasa whole discipline overlapswithotherdisciplinessuchasSociology,
PersonalityPsychology,andCognitive Psychology.
The Historyand roots of Social Psychologycanbe derivedinto Social FacilitationandSocial
Loafing.Incontrast,both of them seemto be indirectoppositesof eachotherhoweverIlearntthat
theyoccur at the same situationbutwithdifferentfactors.Social FacilitationandSocial Loafingboth
occur at situationswherepeople are performinginthe presenceof others.Theirdifferencesisthat
Social Facilitationenhancesawell learnedperformance,while Social Loafingworsensanindividual’s
performance.Inconclusion,Socialfacilitationoccurswhenpeopleare performinginthe presence of
othersyettheirindividual contributionscanbe identified,while SocialLoafingoccurswhenaperson
isperformingatask as part of a groupand individual effortcannotbe identified.
The differentperspectivesof Social Psychologyare spreadinto Sociocultural Perspective,
EvolutionaryPerspective, SocialCognitivePerspective,andSocial LearningPerspective.Firstof all,

3. Sociocultural Perspective focusesonthe relationshipbetweensocialbehaviourandculture.Itstates
that social behaviourisalsoinfluencedby cultural normalities.Secondly,the perspective in physical
and biological predispositionsthatresultinhumansurvival iscalled EvolutionaryPerspective.It
statesthat natural selectionwouldindicate behavioursthatenhancedsurvivalwouldbe passedon
to subsequent generations.Movingon, Social CognitivePerspective isderivedfrom behaviour.It
assumesthatan individual’scognitiveprocessinfluencesandisinfluencedbybehavioural
associations.Lastly, Social LearningPerspective arguesthatindividualslearnfromobservingthe
behavioursof others.Theywillbehaveinthe same mannertowhat or whotheyobserve.Tosumit
all up simply,let’stake asituationpeoplewhosteal.Inthe perspective andview of the Sociocultural
Perspective,people stealbecause the culturetodayadmiresmaterialisticobjectsmore thanpeople.
On the otherhand,from the EvolutionaryPerspective,byhookorby crook, gainingcertainobjects
greatlyimprovesaperson’ssurvivability.ViewingthisfromaSocial Cognitive Perspective,a person
stealsbecause he orshe doesnot thinkit’swrong.Last butnot least,froma Social Learning
Perspective,apersonstealsbecause he orshe learnedthroughobservationandexample that
stealingisanatural andacceptable behaviour.
Social Psychologyandit’srelationtootherfieldsisexperimentedthroughthe Solomon
Asch’sConformityExperiment.The relationtothe fieldof healthcare isthatpeople will choosea
popularopinionratherthanwhat’shealthyevenif theyfeelotherwise.Inthe fieldof business,some
employeeswill follow acompany’sstandardevenif theygoagainsttheirownpersonal standards.
Furthermore,inthe fieldof consumersciences,consumerspurchase itemsthatare popularevenif
theydon’tneedit.Inthe government field,again,people willagree withpoliciesthatare popular
evenif theycontradicttheirpersonal views.
The lecture thenmovesonwithtalkingaboutwhy everyone doesn’t agree withourselves.It
saysthat common sense issubjective andnoteveryone depictsandunderstanditthe same wayas
one mightthink. The assumptionthateveryone sharesone’sopinion iscalledThe False Consensus
Effect.Itis causedby a differentialconstrual wheredifferentpeople judge circumstancesdifferently.
Social Psychologyalsoteachesme how tominimizebiasness.ConfirmationBiasisthe
Biasnessthatone onlypaysattentiontoinformationthatsupportone’sbeliefs.Onthe otherhand,
ConfirmationBiasisalsoone whodisregardsinformationthatcontradictsone’s beliefs.

4. Throughthislecture,Iwas able to clearlyunderstand andcomprehendthe introductory
lessonintoSocial Psychology.Ifindthe subjectveryintriguingandinterestingasitdiscusseshuman
behaviourandpsychology.UsingwhatI’ve learntinthislecture,Iwasable to instil anew wayof
thinkinghowandwhypeople dowhatpeople do.Ilearntthatwe all have differentabilitiesand
reasonsto whywe behave ina mannerabsolutelythe same ordifferentfromeachother.The
differentperspectiveof Social Psychologyallowedme toview thingsbasedonhow othersmight
viewitandfrom there onwards,allowmyself tobuildaclearerandcomplete picture of asituation.
The secondlecture Iattendedaboutthe topicwho am I andhow otherindividualsseeme.
Previously,Ilearntthe definitionof Social Psychologyandthatthere wasa total of 3 keyareasand
aspectsof interestinSocial Psychologywhichissocial perception,influence,andinteraction.
Throughthislesson,Iwas firsttaughtthe meaningof Self-Conceptandwhere the rootsof it
came from.Throughmy understandingof the lecture,Self-Conceptisamental representationor
overall sense of one’sself.Itincludesthe variousbeliefs we holdaboutourselvesandisa large part
of howwe describe ourselves.Itcan alsobe thoughtof as a longlastingandstable setof memories
that summarize aperson'sbeliefs,experiencesandgeneralizationsof himorherself.
In a way,self meansa personinmyperspective,butinactual factin Social Psychology,self
meansa symbol-using,self-reflective,social being.Therefore,withthatandthe theoriesbasedon
George HerbertMead a sociologist,andWilliamJamesapsychologist,whenreferringtoa subjective
self,it’scalled“I”andwhenreferringtoan objectiveself it’scalled“me”.
To furtherclarifyonthe theoriesthatwasproposedbyGeorge HerbertMead and William
James,Iwill explainitbrieflyinmyownwords.ForGeorge HerbertMead’s theoryof the aspectsof
self,he saidthata cognitive process,whichisthe mental abilitiesandprocessesrelatedto
knowledge,attention,memoryandworkingmemory,judgmentandevaluation,reasoning, problem
solvinganddecisionmaking,etc.thatisdevelopingthe self.Furthermore he discussesthatthe self is
broughtabout througha symbolicinteraction.A significantpartinthe cognitive processisrole
takingand learningsymbolicmeanings.The “I”thatGeorge Meads proposesis the ‘I’represents the

5. self asa subjectanditinitiatessocial action.Notonlythat,the “I”is impulsiveaswell as
spontaneousanddoesnot necessarilyrepresentthe mostsociallyacceptable behavior.
On the otherhand,George Meads proposesthatthe “Me” representsthe self asanobject
rather thana subject.Itimaginesthe selfasan objectina situationandprovidesthe “I”with
guidance.Itnegotiatesandessentiallyworkswiththe “I”toproduce an appropriate ormore socially
acceptable behavior.George Meadalsoportraysactionasguidedbyan internal dialogueinsense
that people engage andconverse intheirmindsastheyregulate andcontrol theirbehavior.They
essentiallyuse wordsandimagestosymbolize theirideasaboutthemselves,others,theiractions,
and others’responsestothem.
In the theoryof WilliamJameshowever,he outlinedthe dimensionsof amature self.He
proposesthatThingsbecome a part the self throughemotionalidentificationandasthe nature of
emotional identificationchanges,sodoesaspectsof the self. The “Me”whichhe describes
representsthe knownof the self whichincludes materialisticthingssuchasthe body,clothing,
family,andhome.Italsoincludesemotionsthatmightbe associatedwithmaterial things like pride
and self-esteem.The “I”representsthe thinkeraspectof the self whichsaidthatthe “I” is essentially
the consciouspart of the self andthe ‘Me’was onlyone thingthat itwas consciousof.
As explainedbyourlecturer,we continuedonbydiscussingaboutCharlesHortonCooley
and the Looking-Glassself.It’saboutthatwe picture how we lookto othersandhow otherpeople
judge the appearance thatwe thinkwe present.If the evaluationisfavorable,ourself-conceptis
enhanced,if not,it’sdiminished.
Next,Ilearntabout, AbrahamMaslow Hierarchyof Needs.Itdiscussesthe 7mainneedsof
us humanbeings.ThisHierarchyof NeedsbyAbrahamMaslow isarrangedina pyramidandat the
verybottom,itstatesthe outmostimportantneedtill the leastimportantatthe verytopof the
pyramid.Atthe base of the pyramid,itstatesthe Physiological Needs whichreferstothings
necessarytobasicsurvival,includingfood,water,rest,anappropriate climate,the avoidance of
pain,etc. Next,above it,itstatesthe SafetyandSecurity of one self andrefersto thingsas finding
safe circumstances,shelter,satiability,andprotection. Theymayalsoinclude aneedforstructure

6. and order. Movingon,goingup anotherlevel,itstatesthe Love andBelonging whichincludes the
needforfriends,affectionaterelationships,children,anda sense of community. Above thatlevel,it
statesSelf Esteem,whichcanbe furtherderivedtotwoseparate levels whichare self-respect,
confidence,asense of independence andfreedom, onthe upperleveland the needforattention,
the respectof others,status,recognition,etc. onthe lowerlevel.Above Self Esteem,itstatesthe
Intellectual whichreferstoan internallydirectedneedis forintellectualdevelopment,where
deficiency isnotfocusedon butrather a sense of enhancing. The higherlevel afterthisstates
Aestheticwhichisthe desire toacquire anappreciationforthe beautyoraestheticnature of things.
Last but not least,itstatesthe Self-Actualization whichis the resultof the inner-directeddrive of
humansto grow,improve,anduse theirpotential tothe fullest. However,thislevel isseldom
reached.
Afterwards,continuingonwiththe maintopic,Ilearntabout Self-Schemawhichare beliefs
aboutaspectsof youridentity whichorganizesthe processingof informationrelatedtoyourself-
concept.More like puzzle piecesinthe largerpicture of the self-concept.Moreover,Ialsolearned
aboutSelf-efficacy whichisaperson’s belief in hisorherabilities toachieve certaingoals.Itis
researchedthatAlbertBanduradiscoveredthatpeople withhighself-efficacysee difficulttasksas
challenges while people withlow self-efficacysee difficulttasksassomethingtobe avoided.Ilearnt
aboutPhysiologicalinfluences whichstatesthatSelf-conceptsare bothbiological andenvironmental
and it’sevidentthatbrain injuriescanchange our sense of self andspecificpartsof the brain
activate whenwe talkaboutourselves.Incontrast,the lecture alsocovered the Social identity
theory whichstatesthatthe developmentorouridentityisconnectedtoparticularsocial groups
and itemergesasa formof social comparison.Forexample,we see ourselvesasbeingthe same or
differentfromthe social groupswe are in. This ispart of the basisof our self-concept.
We movedonto Cultural Influenceswhere there istwotypes,whichare individualistic
cultures andcollective cultures. Individualisticcultures isthe focusonindependenceovercollective
goalswhichmakesone standout fromthe crowd. Whereascollective culturesfocuson
interdependence andconnectionsbetweenindividuals.Subsequently,we talkedaboutintrospection
whichisthinkingaboutourownthoughts.It statesthat introspectionmaynotbe as useful aswidely
believedbecauseourattitudesare ofteninconsistentwithouractual behaviours.Continuing,we
learntthat predictionswhichare ofteninaccurate of how future eventwill affectouremotional
statesiscalledAffectiveforecasting.

7. Next,we wentthroughthe Self-discrepancytheory.The Self-discrepancytheoryisourself-
conceptwhichisinfluencedbyhowclose we are to the person we desire tobe.Thistheorycan
cause us to see ourselvesdifferentlythanwe actuallyare.Italsogivesusself-awarenesswhen
attentionisbroughtuponone’sself.Onthe otherhand,talkingaboutthe Self-perceptiontheory,it
statesthat we use our behaviourstohelpusgauge ourattitudes.We oftensee ourselvesbasedon
howothersperceive us.Thisisuseful whenwe are unsure of ourownattitudes.
On topof that, we talkedaboutMotivation.There are mainlytwotypesof motivation,
Intrinsicand Extrinsicmotivation.Intrinsicmotivationistakingacertainactionforthe sake of
enjoymentwhichtendstoleadusto be more fullyengaged.Thusagain,leadingtogreatercuriosity
and pleasure.Incontrast, extrinsicmotivation isacertainactiondone inresponse toexternal
pressure orobligation.Itmightbe done toavoidpunishmentorearna specificreward.Tosumup,
preferencesfortasksthatare intrinsicallyorextrinsicallyrewardedare influencedbyculture.
Self-servingbiasesisanAttributionwhichisthe termmeaningdecidingwhoorwhatis
responsible foraparticularoutcome andit can be influencedbyanumberof factors.We make
positive attributionsthatallowustosee ourselvesinthe bestpossible light.Tosimplyputit,we
make external attributionsfornegativeoutcomes,andwe make internal attributionsforpositive
outcomes. Inotherwords,we take creditfor successbutwe don’ttake responsibilityforfailure.
Next,False Consensusisourtendencytooverestimate the numberof peoplewhoactor thinkas we
do.Which isassumedto serve a self-protectivefunctionandmaybe reinforcedbythe companywe
keep.UnrealisticOptimism isthe tendencytoimagine thatourownoutcomesare betterthanthose
of otherpeople.The positives of thisisthatit maybe indicative of betterself-efficacyandmayhelp
speedrecoveryfromsetbacks.The negative isthatitcan leadus to underprepare fornegative
occurrences.“BIRGing”is"BaskinginReflectedGlory" whichisdefinedasthe goodfeeling
identifyingwithotherswhoare successful.Whereas,“CORFing”is"Cuttingoff Reflective Failure"
whichisdefinedas Distancingourselvesfromotherswhohave failedorbehavedbadly.Self-
handicappingis the intentiontocreate obstacles toourown successsothat we have an excuse if we
fail.

8. Lastly,the lecture discussedaboutthe Self-VerificationTheory.The Self-VerificationTheory
isthat we want othersto see usas we see ourselves.Thisoccurrence occursevenwhenourself-
conceptis negative.Thisgivesusthe illusionof controllabilityandpredictability.
Throughthislecture,Iwas able to comprehendthe termsandwayssocial psychologyis
basedon.I was able to clearlyunderstandthe relativenessof the topictoour daily lives.For
example,justlike BIRGingandCORFing,Ifeel thatinfirstperson,thatitdoesoccur and itoccurs
veryofteninour dailylives.Notonlythat,Inow appreciatedthe science thatgoesintosocial
psychologyanditsimportance inourlives. ItreallyrelatestomypastexperiencesandIcan
understandthe subjectbetterbecause of the givenexample thatreflectsourdailylives.
The third lecture Iattendedwasaboutthe topicof Social Cognitionwhichisonthinking
aboutthe social world we live intoday.The topicdiscussesthe subjectof guidingthe waywe think
aboutthe worldaroundus.
Firstly,we talkedaboutSchemas, anorganizedpatternof thoughtorbehaviourthat
organizescategoriesof informationandthe relationshipsamong themorinlaymanterms, cognitive
structure that isusedto identifyandprocessinformation. Theyare cognitive frameworksandare
automaticallycreated.SchemasasIhave learntare formedonthe basisof experience.Primeis
whena stimulusisusedto activate a schema.We thenmove to talkaboutJeanPiagetand the role
of SchemasCognitiveDevelopment,inwhichtheywere 5waysof how cognitive development
occurs whichare Schema,Assimilation,Accommodation,Equilibrium,and Equilibration.
Movingon, Assimilationistoclassifyanew stimulusorpiece of informationandsoforththis
processinfluencesthe growthof anindividualschemabutitdoesnotchange the change the
schema.Inother words,a cat is an animal orpet,howeverCATstandsalso for the name of the
renownedheavyindustrialautomotive manufacturer,Caterpillar.Furthermore,Accommodationisa
modification,itallowsachildtomodifyanexistingschema toaccommodate anew stimulus orpiece
of information.If thismodificationfails,then,the childwill create anew schema.Equilibriumis
whenassimilationandaccommodationworktogethertocreate increasinglymore adequate

9. schemasforthe understandingof the world.Thisoftensuggestasteadyandcomfortable state.
Equilibration iswhen the nature of the new stimulus orinformation doesnotsubmittothe
equilibriumprocessanddisequilibriumoccurs, thusmakingtheircognitive structure more adequate.
Once thisis done,the childshiftsbacktoassimilation whichiswhatiscalledEquilibration.
The trouble forschemasissoon broughtup. The confirmationbias whichstate that
informationthatsupportsaschemais attendedto andinformationthatcontradictsa schemamay
be filteredout.Stereotypingiswhenone assumesthatall membersof agroup share some common
feature.The Perseverance Effectwhichisonce a schemaisformed,itishard to change.It may be
difficultforpeople to"letgo"of these typesof schemas.Inaddition, Self-FulfillingProphecy iswhen
predictions thatcause themselvestocome true.Selectivefilteringispayingattentiontosensory
informationthataffirmsastereotype andfilteringoutsensoryinformationthatnegatesa
stereotype.We thenmovedtoAutomaticvsControlledProcessing.AutomaticProcessingis
unconsciousandeffortless.Itisdone on-the-fly.Incomparison,ControlledProcessingisdone
consciouslyandrequirescarefulthoughtandeffort.AutomaticProcessingisessential inourdaily
livesasithelpsusdeal withthe enormousamountof informationinourworld.We movedonto
Heuristicswhichstatessimplerulesthatreducesmentaleffort.Itallowsustomake decisionsor
judgementsquickly.The representative Heuristicisourassessmentof how likelyanoccurrence is
basedon howmuchit resemblesourexpectationforamodel of that event.The AvailabilityHeuristic
on the otherhand isa rule usedto estimate the likelihoodof agivenoccurrence basedonhow easily
one can recall that occurrence.The nextterminologyusedisthe Base Rate Fallacywhichisan error
causedby drawinga conclusion usingthe representativenessheuristicwithoutconsideringthe base
rate.In contrast bothAvailabilityHeuristicsandRepresentative Heuristicscanbe easilyunderstood
by the followingexamples,forexample inAvailabilityHeuristics,one maythinkbackto an
occurrence to estimate alikelihoodof asituation,the downsideof thisisthatit givesmore vivid
occurrenceswithoutfearingothermore likelyinstances.Inthe case of Representative Heuristicsthe
distinctive characteristicsthatisatfirstglance is takentobe an estimate,the downsidetothisisthat
it ignoresotherimportantinformation.
The anchoringand adjustmentheuristicstatesthatwe use a numberasa starting pointon
whichto anchor ourjudgment.The framingHeuristicisadecision-makingbasedonthe framework
inwhicha situationoritemispresented.The illusionof control whichisthe perceptionthat
uncontrollableeventsare somehow controllable.The negativitybiasiswhenwe’re attendingtoand

10. rememberingonlynegative information.The OptimisticBiasisbeingoptimisticandbelievingthat
bad thingshappentootherpeople andthatyouare more likelytoexperiencepositive eventsinlife.
The overconfidence barrieristhe belief thatourownjudgementorcontrol isbetterorgreaterthan
it trulyiswhichispart of the OptimisticBias.Counterfactual Thinkingisimaginingdifferent
outcomesforan eventthathas alreadyoccurredand isusuallyassociatedwithabador negative
eventsthatcan be usedto improve orworsenyourmood.There are twocategoriesof
counterfactual thinking,namelyUpwardCounterfactualsandDownwardCounterfactuals.Upward
Counterfactualsare whenwe thinkif somethinginverselyDownwardCounterfactualsiswhenwe
thinkat leastit’snotsomething.We discussedonthe effectof moodoncognition,The congruence
effectsiswhenwe rememberpositivedetailsof aneventif we were ina goodmoodand we
remembernegative detailsif we were inabadmood.The mooddependentmemorystatesthatour
moodat the time of learningisaretrieval cue forrememberingthatinformation.
In thislecture,IlearnedthatstereotypingwhichiswhatIoccasionallydo,Iunderstoodthe
termsand howit ismanifestedinSocial Psychology.Furthermore,Irelatedthe Automaticand
ControlledProcessingtomydailylife andInotice thatit isas the lecture said.Ifindthislecture very
satisfying.
The fourthlecture I attendedtalkedaboutSocial Perception,more specifically,how dowe
perceive others.
As inthe firstlecture,Social Psychologyisthe explorationof the interactionof anindividual
personanda givensituation.There are three mainareasof interestinthisaspreviouslydiscussed
whichare social perception,influence,andinteraction.We startedoff withthe AttributionTheory
whichfocussesonthe methodswe use tointerpretanotherperson’sbehaviourandtoinferits
sources.FritzHeider’sAttributionProcessstatesthatithelpstoexplainthe cause andeffectof
behaviour.There are twomaincategoriesof Attributionswhichare Dispositional andSituational
Attribution.Dispositional Attributionisinternal andisacause of an actiondue to a person’sinternal

11. characteristics.Onthe otherhand,Situational Attributionisexternal andisacause of an actiondue
to external orenvironmentfactors.
The CorrespondentInference Theorystatesthatwe make attributionsforothers’actions
basedon three factorsmainly,‘Wasthe behaviourfreelychosen?’,‘Isthe behaviourexpectedina
context?’,‘Whatare the action’sconsequences?’.Thistheorylooksforthe non-commoneffect
whichare behavioursthatcouldnothave beenachievedbyanyof the otheravailable choices.It
therefore indicatesthe true intentbecause itcouldnothave beenachievedbyanyotherpotential
course of action.Next,we discussedaboutHaroldKelley’sCovariationTheorywhichalsobases
attributionsinthree factors,Consensus,Distinctiveness,andConsistency.Consensusisinwhichone
questiononeselfwouldmostpeople behave inthe same way.Distinctivenessiswhenthe same
people wouldbehave differentlyinothersituations.Consistencyiswhenthe individual respondin
the same way to the same stimulusindifferentcontexts.Whensomeonecomparedtootherswould
act the same wayas themselves,nothingcanbe saidabout hisor hercharacter, howeverif other
people contradictsone’sbehaviourthenthe actioniscausedbecause of somethingunique about
the person,thisisConsensus.WhentalkingaboutDistinctiveness,if the personisactingdifferently
than usual,itmustbe because of the situation,andif the personisnotactingdifferentitreflects
somethingintrinsictothe person.Consistencyisaboutthe personandthe wayhe or she acts this
waywhensomethinghappens,if yes,the actionreflectssomethingIntrinsictothe person.If not,it
mustbe due to somethingdifferentaboutthe situation.
We thenmovedtohowbiasescome intoplay.Attributionsare basedonassumptionsand
oftenincomplete data.CorrespondenceBiasisa fundamental attributionerrorandisthe tendency
to make dispositional attributionsforothers’behaviours.Normally,thistendstohappenwhenwe
don’thave enoughinformationtomake anaccurate attribution.Spontaneoustraitinference iswhen
we automaticallyinfertraits fromanotherperson’sbehaviours. The impactof culture inattribution
isabundantand everpresent. Collectivistculturesare lesslikelytomake dispositional attributions.
Thus,the fundamental attributionerrorhappenslessasaresult.Itis alsostatedthat cultural
differencesinattributionsharpenwithage andoccurswhenone isnot askedfora judgement.
Furthermore,we movedintothe three-stagemodelof attributionbyGilbert,Pelham, and
Krull from1988 whichtalksaboutthe cognitive capacity.The three-stage model of attributionstates

12. that a behaviorisautomaticallycharacterized andadispositional inference ismade.Situational
factors are alsoweightedinif the observeriscognitivelyable todoso.However,thisrequirestime,
motivation,andenergytoovercome the automaticdispositional attribution.Next,we lookedatthe
needforcognition.Some people have aninnate drive tosolve problemsthroughreason,thinking,
and analysis.Thisinturncan leadto a reductionof correspondence bias.The actor-observerbiasis
makingdispositional attributionsforothers’behaviorsbutsituational attributionsforourown.The
self-servingbiasonthe otherhandis the tendencytoattribute positive effectsorsuccessful
behaviorstodispositionalfactors,whileattributingnegative effectsorunsuccessfulbehaviorsto
situational factors.The belief inajustworldwhichisthe basisbelief thatgoodthingshappento
goodpeople andbadthingshappento badpeople allows ustoblame othersmisfortunesonthem
insteadof circumstances.Itservesmainlyas aself-protectivefunction.Nowadays,itaffectour
choicesto helpornot to helpothers.
Subsequently,we alsodiscussedonhow dowe decide whatotherpeople like.First
impressionsare the firstglance image of whatothersthinkorsee of you.Theyare not deliberate
and are notformedbywatchingothers’actions.Theymaybe instantaneousandaresearchfound
out that firstimpressionsare usuallymade afteronlyatenthof a second!We thenmovedonto two
effectsthatmayhelpus decide whatotherpeoplelikeprimarily,the primacyandrecencyeffect.The
primacyeffectisthe first piece of informationwe receive will have the mostimpactonour
impression.Incontrast,the recencyeffectisthe lastpiece of informationwe receivewill alsohave a
large impacton our impression.Surpassingthis,whatisa beautifulisgoodeffect?Beautyinvarious
formsis alwaysassociatedwith positivequalities,normallyphysical beautyandfacial features.All of
thisand more formthe basisof our impressionsof others.The haloeffectiswhenone positive
attribute will cause ustoattribute otherpositive qualitiestoan individual.Thisalsospeakstothe
importance of a goodfirstimpression.Itcanoccur unconsciouslywithoutouractive awareness.
Lastly,we activelyseekoutdatathat supportourbeliefs andactivelydisregarddatathatrefute our
beliefs.Beliefperseverance iswhenpeople maintaintheiroriginalbeliefseveninthe face of obvious
contradictorydata.
Thislecture hasimpactedme a lot ina sense thatit ismore easilyrelatedtomydailylife.
Talkingaboutfirstimpressionsreallymade me thinkof whatwe doandwhat we see ina newerand
betterperspective.Furthermore,Ialsolearnta lotfromthis lecture abouthow culture affectsusand

13. that our beliefsreallymakesthe base of us.It doesn’tmatterif it’srightor wrong,as longas we
thinkthat it’sright,we normallythinkthat’sright.
The fifthlecture talksaboutattitudesandmakingevaluationsaboutthe worldthatwe live in
today.
Firstand foremost,attitude isdefinedasa tendencytoevaluate aperson,object,oridea
withsome degree of approval ordisapproval.An evaluationof aspecificstimuluswithparts.Ithas
three maincomponentsnamely,Affective,Behavioural,andCognitivecomponents.Next,we moved
on to the ABCsof attitude discussingthe previouscomponents.The affectivecomponentis
emotionallybasedandisabouthowone feels.The behavioural componentisbasedonactionand is
aboutwhat one does.Cognitive componentisaknowledge basedcomponentandisaboutwhatone
knows.Attitudescanvaryintone eitherpositiveornegative andstrengtheithermildtopassionate.
Theycan also be ambivalentwhichmeansthatit canbe bothpositive andnegativeatthe same time.
Secondly,we talkedaboutimplicitattitudeswhichformswithoutconsciousawarenessand
may occur almostautomatically.Explicitattitudesonthe otherhandisan attitude thatone
recognizesandcan control.Classicconditioninghastwoeffectsthe mere exposure effectandthe
name-lettereffect.Inthe mere exposure effect,objectsbecome betterlikedwithrepeated
exposure.Forexample,we like thingsmore whenthingsbecomefamiliartous.The name-letter
effectisthe tendencytoshowa preference forthe lettersinourname and stimuli thatcontains
those letters.Operantconditioningisthe usage of reinforcementorpunishmentinstrengtheningor
weakeningaparticularbehaviour.There are afew typesof operantoutcomes.The outcomesare
positive reinforcementorpositive negative reinforcement andpositivepunishmentornegative
punishment.
Next,we movedontotalk aboutassessingattitudes.Sometimeswe know aperson’s
attitudesfromtheirbehaviours,butthisisnotalwaysthe reliable andcorrectwayto doso. Self-
reportmeasuresare questionnairesthataskusto describe ourownattitudesoropinions.Attitudes
are easiertoassessif theyare explicitversusimplicit. A personmaynot evenbe aware of theirown

14. implicitattitudes.Furthermore,observationisanotherwaytogauge attitudes,butitcan alsobe
inaccurate.Movingon,implicitAssociationTestorIATusesa bit of deceptiontoassessanattitude
can examine attitudestoward suchtopicsasrace, religion,andevenpolitics.Regardingwhether
attitudesinfluencebehaviour,the answerissometimes.Manyfactorsmaycause attitudesand
behaviourtobe inconsistent.Itisevidentthatcancer patientswithpositive attitudeslive longer
than those withnegative attitudes.The theoryof plannedbehaviourstatesthatattitudes,social
norms,and perceivedcontrol all leadtobehaviours.Sometimesbehavioursare aresultof careful,
thoughtful deliberation.Attitudesdoinfluence behaviourandthere are several factorstoconsider
whenevaluatingbehaviourswhichare the strengthof attitude,specificity,andaccessibility.When
the strengthof attitude isstronger,it’smore likelywe are tobehave inaccordance withthat
position.Specificitystatesthatveryspecificattitudesare more likelytobe actedon than general
attitudes.Accessibilityisthe degree towhichaconceptis active inour consciousness.Chronic
accessibilityisfrequentandrecentexposure toaconcept makesit much more readilyavailable.This
can serve bothpositive andnegativefunctions.
Furthermore,the lecture discussedLeonFestinger’sTheoryof Cognitive Dissonance.The
Theoryof Cognitive Dissonancestatesthatwhenanattitude isinkeepingwithabehaviourthen
there isa consonantrelationship.Whenanattitude isnotinkeepingwithabehaviourthenthere isa
dissonantrelationship.Toreduce adegree of dissonance inadissonantrelationship,itrequiresa
thirdconsonantelement.A response toa dissonantstate can be one of the followingeither
changingthe attitude,adda consonantelementorreduce the importance of the attitude. Inthe
face of cognitive dissonance individualsmayseeksocial supportinfavourof a givenattitude inorder
to reduce the level of dissonance.
Subsequently,Post-DecisionDissonance iswhenwe have torejectone appealingchoice in
favourof another, we will devaluethe optionnotselected.Forexample,afterwe chose which
college toattend, we startto findflawswiththe oneswe rejectedorthe onesthatrejectedus.The
questionappearsthat‘Doescognitive dissonance leadtoattitude change?’.A four-stepmodel
identifieswhatisneededforchange tooccur. Firstly,recognitionthatadiscrepancyhasnegative
consequences,secondly,personal responsibilityforanaction,next,physiological arousal,andfinally,
attributionof thatarousal to an action.Fritz Heider’sBalance Theorystatesthatpeopledesire
cognitive consistency.We feelcomfortable with otherswhoshare ourattitudesresultingina
balancedstate.Conversely,we feel uncomfortable withpeople whodonotshare our attitudes

15. resultinginan unbalancedstate.Lastly,LeonFestinger’s Theoryof Cognitive Dissonance alsostates
that, whenan attitude isinkeepingwithabehaviourthenthere isaconsonantrelationship and
inverselywhenanattitude isnotinkeepingwithabehaviourthenthere isadissonantrelationship.
Throughthislecture I wasable to closelyunderstandhow attitude worksandhow itevolves
aroundthe worldwe live intoday.Iam able to evaluate andprocessthe cognitive dissonance and
understanditindetail.Ialsofoundoutthroughthislecture that there are the ABCs of attitude
available tohelpme relate andunderstandattitude better.