2. Generally, we make conclusions based on
what we:
KNOW (implies certainty)
ZNAMO
CONCLUDE / INFER (based on facts or previous
experience and knowledge)
ZAKLJUČUJEMO
ASSUME
PRETPOSTAVLJAMO
3. Write down these three words and
think about the amount of information you
need to:
KNOW SOMETHING (implies certainty) =
KNOWLEDGE
CONCLUDE SOMETHING (based on facts or
previous experience and knowledge) =
CONCLUSION or INFERENCE or DEDUCTION
ASSUME SOMETHING = ASSUMPTION or
HYPOTHESIS
ASSIGNMENT 1
Write down these three words,
and think about their meaning.
In your daily life, when do you use
the word „KNOW”, e.g., ”I know
that…”?
How much information is enough
for you to CONCLUDE something?
How often do you simply ASSUME
things?
*Keep the paper next to you, you
will need it for the next assignment
4. On the next slide, you will see a photograph.
DON’T LOOK AT IT YET!
Next to the words KNOW, CONCLUDE, and ASSUME, write down information that you gathered from
analysing the photo.
What do you know about what you see?
What can you conclude through other information provided?
What do you assume?
Write down 3 sentences for each of the 3 words.
ASSIGNMENT 2
5.
6. Now, let’s do this together.
On the following slides, you will see certain questions about the photograph.
Answer the question out loud, and then, decide – was your answer something that we can:
KNOW
CONCLUDE
ASSUME
ASSIGNMENT 2
7. What do we see in the photograph?
KNOW
CONCLUDE
ASSUME
8. There are two people, a dog, a body of water,
and we know it’s daylight…
KNOW
CONCLUDE
ASSUME
We know, because we see it!
10. KNOW CONCLUDE ASSUME
We know they are standing/sitting next to the water.
We can conclude they went out for a walk. (We can’t say we KNOW that, but we have
enough information to conclude, in other words, they are not camping, or jogging,
etc.).
12. KNOW CONCLUDE ASSUME
Because we are not there and can not see a calendar, we can rely on our
experience of nature; we can only conclude it is early spring or autumn based on
the information we have: their clothes, the colour of the leaves on the trees…
14. KNOW CONCLUDE ASSUME
We know it isn’t raining or snowing, because we can see the photo. Also, we
know the weather is clear.
We can conclude it is a bit cold because of what they are wearing.
15. KNOW CONCLUDE ASSUME
Is the couple married or in any way related? What is their relationship like?
16. KNOW CONCLUDE ASSUME
Since there are no clear visual indications we can observe, we can only assume
they are a couple… or siblings, or friends… There is no way for us to rightfully
conclude the nature of their relationship.
There is not enough data, therefore, we can only assume.
- INSUFFICIENT DATA = ASSUMPTION
18. KNOW CONCLUDE ASSUME
We can only assume that they do not have children.
If they had any, they would probably take the child along. However, we do not
know for certain, and we can NOT conclude this premise, because there is not
enough data. For example, what if they did have a child, but it was with its
grandparents?
- INSUFFICIENT DATA = ASSUMPTION
20. KNOW CONCLUDE ASSUME
We can only assume that it is their dog, because it seems relaxed in their
company.
However, they could just be dog-sitting.
- INSUFFICIENT DATA = ASSUMPTION
22. KNOW CONCLUDE ASSUME
This is a perfect example of a simple question that one would answer without
much thought and conclude: yes, they love dogs because they are with one.
However, we have to take into account that there are too many unknown
variables for us to make a valid conclusion. For example, perhaps they only love
this dog and not dogs in general; perhaps they are dog-sitting for a friend…
- INSUFFICIENT DATA = ASSUMPTION
24. KNOW CONCLUDE ASSUME
We can only assume they like other animals, but we can equally assume they do
not. If they like dogs, perhaps they don’t like cats?
- INSUFFICIENT DATA = ASSUMPTION
25. Once again, think about the importance of and differences
between these three processes:
KNOWING SOMETHING = KNOWLEDGE
ZNATI – DOKAZIVE ČINJENICE
CONCLUDE SOMETHING = CONCLUSION or INFERENCE or
DEDUCTION
Zaključiti ili doći do zaključka na temelju postojećih
informacija
ASSUME SOMETHING = ASSUMPTION or HYPOTHESIS
PRETPOSTAVITI – bez dovoljno informacija za zaključak
CONCLUSION
ASSUMPTION
28. SCIENCE is based on facts (knowledge).
Too often, because of the freedom of the Internet,
various other media, and the lack of professional
journalism, rumours, assumptions, and opinions are
presented as proven facts.
This can be rather dangerous.
Journals, books and websites which engage in this
practice can not be considered objective sources.
Science
29. Educated people, including scientists, understand the
difference between KNOWING, CONCLUDING, and
ASSUMING. An established scientist, therefore, will
never publish an assumption as a fact, but will conduct
research to acquire more information before making
conclusions.
Their conclusions are also not set in stone, but are
rigorously tried and tested by their fellow scientists
before they are accepted as facts.
This is why peer-reviewed journals, books and articles
are considered objective sources.
Science
30. SCIENCE is based on facts (knowledge).
Although assumptions are not as valid as facts, they are
still quite relevant in science as well because they can
be expanded upon in research.
Science
31. 1. HYPOTHESIS – is an assumption based on relevant
experience, observation and previous knowledge of the field
of research.
Research articles/studies start from...
32. 1. HYPOTHESIS – assumption based on relevant experience,
observation and previous knowledge of the field of research.
2. Researches conduct research to prove or disprove
hypotheses.
Research articles/studies
33. 1. HYPOTHESIS – assumption based on relevant experience,
observation and previous knowledge of the field of research.
2. Researchers conduct research to prove or disprove
hypotheses.
3. Studies or research are used to collect all available FACTS!
Research articles/studies
34. 1. HYPOTHESIS – assumption based on relevant experience,
observation and previous knowledge of the field of research.
2. Researchers conduct research to prove or disprove
hypotheses.
3. Studies or research – collecting FACTS!
4. Conclusions are then made by interpreting facts, based on
relevant experience and knowledge, and on collected and
analysed data.
Research articles/studies
35. 1. HYPOTHESIS – assumption based on relevant experience,
observation and previous knowledge of the field of research.
2. Researchers conduct research to prove or disprove
hypotheses.
3. Studies or research – collecting FACTS!
4. Conclusions are then made by interpreting facts, based on
relevant experience and knowledge, and on collected and
analysed data.
5. Only after the findings have been peer-reviewed, the
author can publish an article in a professional publication.
Research articles/studies
36. Knowledge is cyclical, community-generated, and
community-maintained.
Collective – individual – collective
Collective
Individual
The cycle of KNOWLEDGE
37. This is also why you study!
You do not have to start from scratch. You can use the existing
knowledge (for example, about the development of a child,
language learning, etc.) gathered in textbooks, journals… and
presented by your professors.
The cycle of KNOWLEDGE
38. The cycle of KNOWLEDGE
That is also why reliable sources are important.
• Credible sources are generally texts that can be trusted and authoritative. These would
be texts with support in terms of reliable evidence (facts, data, statistics) and often
referring to previous work by academic authors.
• The most common credible sources are scholarly journals, conference papers and books
because these have been peer-reviewed (read and approved for publication by other
authors).
• However, there are good websites that can be used, generally ending in .gov / .edu
• Primary and Secondary Sources
• There are two types of sources, Primary and Secondary.
A primary source is the main source - this can be raw data, records and key facts. A
secondary source draws on the primary data and analyses it.
39. • Sources such as TED TALKs, YOUTUBE,
WIKIPEDIA, etc. can be motivating AND can
lead to other sources but are usually not
reliable sources themselves.
• For establishing credibility of our source, we
can apply the CRAAP Test.
• The CRAAP Test is a list of questions to help
you evaluate the information you find. The
different criteria of the C.R.A.A.P Test are an
important guide on what exactly you need for
your assignment / research / or evidence – so
save this image, you might need it later!
Watch the short video in the
introduction on 2CO2.
LINK
40. Key questions to
ask when
evaluating
source material
Is there an author? Date?
Is there evidence? Where is it from? Sourced?
Is there a reference list? And in-text referencing?
Generally, there shouldn’t be glossy pictures or
advertising.
It should be written in an academic formal style and
quite difficult to read for someone who isn’t used to
reading academic texts.
41. Objectivity and
credibility
A researcher starts from a
hypothesis (assumption),
BUT in order to gain
credibility, one has to:
Gather factual truths
acquired through evidence
and research results.
Apply proper
methodology.
Use appropriate literature
(references) – connection
to community.
Use appropriate language
(style) – topic of our
previous lecture.
Receive positive peer
review from the academic
community. Your findings
and conclusions can
become facts.
42. Peer review
• Your paper cannot be
published without being
reviewed by your peers (the
academic community). It is a
complex and lengthy process,
but it enables credibility!
43. Homework
Using the attached document on 2CO2, evaluate a few different sources.
Remember the key questions (slide 24)!
How credible and objective are your sources?
