Chapter 3 series of foundations of education

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Foundations of Education by Hina Jalal (PhD Scholar GCUF)
4.1 Educational Psychology: Concept and meaning
The term psychology was derived from Greek; 'psyche' meaning is soul 'logus' means Science. Hence about
2500 years back it was referred to a 'science of soul'. In olden days, it was believed that soul was responsible
for various activities of man such as thinking, imagining, reasoning etc. In the Middle Ages psychology
became a 'science of mind'. Then after some time, it became the 'science of conscience'. This definition was
criticized from 'abnormal psychology' which brought the study of unconscious part of the mind.
Then in 20th century psychology assumed scientific look and it became the 'science of mental behavior'.
By observing one's behavior we can have a knowledge of one's conscious and unconscious minds. It may be
stated as:
a) Psychology is the science of human and animal behavior.
b) Psychology is the positive science of human experience and behavior.
c) Psychology is a field of study which seeks scientific methods to describe, understand, predict and control
the behavior of living organisms. Literally psychology means the science of mind.
Most of the pertinent assumptions of psychology are:
A) Human behavior is functional and dynamic.
B) At every stage of development, an individual's reactions are influenced by effect of his experiences with
people, things, situations and environmental conditions upon his desire to satisfy felt needs, wants and
urges.
C) A person's reactions usually represent the functioning of a total integrated pattern of behavior.
Educational Psychology
It deals with the behavior of human beings in educational situations. This means that it is concerned with the
study of human behavior or the human personality, its growth, development and guidance under the social
process of education. It is a branch of general psychology which deals with various aspects of psychological
factors affecting education, teaching and learning processes. It describes and explains the learning experiences
of an individual from birth through old age. Its subject matter is concerned with the conditions that affect
learning. Educational psychology can be regarded as an applied science in that it seeks to explain learning
according to scientifically determined principles and facts concerning human behavior.
In the light of available data, educational psychologists attempt to discover.
i. The nature of the learning process.
ii. The educational significances of individual differences.
iii. The inner change that occur during learning.
iv. The relation of teaching procedures to leaning outcomes.
v. The most effective techniques for evaluating progress in learning.
vi. To value the scientific attitude towards education.
vii. The psychological impact upon learners’ attitude of sociological conditions.
According to the Skinner “Educational psychology deals with behavior of human being in educational
situation”.

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Foundations of Education by Hina Jalal (PhD Scholar GCUF)
According to Crow and Crow “Educational psychology describes and explains the learning experiences of
an individual from birth through old age”.
According to Stephen “Educational psychology is the systematic study of the educational growth and
development of a child”.
According to Trow “Educational psychology is the study of the psychological aspects of educational
situation”.
4.2 Role of psychology in selecting content
Derek Halpern defined it as “Content comes in any form (audio, text, image, and video) and it informs,
entertains, enlightens, or teaches people who consume it”. Psychology play an important role in selecting
contents. Understanding of psychology is necessary for curriculum developers while devising learning
experiences. Curriculum developers should consider and employ the following psychological sources:
• Educational objectives
• Learning theories
• Motivational theories
• Individual differences
• Personality
• Teaching methods
• Human growth and development
• Teaching and learning styles
• Evaluation process
The curriculum should cover the needs of the learners and their mental differences. Psychology emphasizes
on the proper and good curriculum in which is prepared to fit the needs of the learner. The curriculum should
account the subjects of teaching, the way, the needs of the learner and society, complexity, and the individual
differences of the learners. The contribution of psychology in selecting contents for curriculum design is
significant and growing. As psychology is related to young discipline, scope of applied concepts, the learner,
the principles of learning process, and learning situation.
Curriculum is influenced by psychology. Psychology provides information about the teaching and learning
process. It also seeks answers as to how a curriculum be organized to achieve students’ learning at the
optimum level, and as to what amount of information they can absorb in learning the various contents of the
curriculum.
4.3 Role of Psychology in Pedagogy
Psychology sheds a great light on the role of the teacher in the teaching learning process, therefore; teachers
should be knowledgeable with psychology to deal with the different problems of educational situation. They
should know how to solve the learner’s needs and problems. Psychology helps the teachers to understand and
to solve the complex problems of the learner. The knowledge of psychology and educational psychology
enlighten the teacher about the ways and means in which learning can take place in the best possible manners.
The most effects of psychology on the teacher can be summarized in the following points:
• Psychology helps teacher to understand and to explain the mental situations of the learner.
• Psychology help teacher in the evaluation and measurement of the learners’ achievements.

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Foundations of Education by Hina Jalal (PhD Scholar GCUF)
• Psychology helps the teacher to recognize and to solve the learners’ problems
• Psychology brings change in the attitude of the teacher toward his students
• Psychology emphasize on the important of a proper training for teachers. A train teacher should
understand the learners’ problems and solve it.
• Psychology provide education with new theories of learning for better teaching and learning
• The help of psychology shows the teacher how to improve the learners’ behavior
• Psychology help teacher to understand the changes in the learners’ behavior in certain situation.
The knowledge of teachers to the psychological characteristics of their learners helps them to devise such
methods and techniques of teaching. Those methods and techniques are chosen according to the level and
needs of the learner. The teacher should differentiate the methods of teaching to fit all the learners’ needs.
5.1 Educational Sociology: Concept and meaning
A man is social animal and live in society and society is made up of network of human relationships. Their
style of living, idea, attitudes are similar. Sociology is a science that studies the relationship of men and their
environment. Educational sociology is one of the branches of sociology. It tries to tell the meaning of
education through the sociological point of view.
MEANING OF SOCIOLOGY:
Sociology can be defined as the study of man and his environment in their relationship with each other. In
1837 French philosopher Auguste Comte first coin the word sociology, by sociology he meant the application
of scientific method in the study of the relationship between the society and individual.
1) E.T. Hiller: "Sociology is the study of relations between individuals, their conduct and
reference to one another and standard by which they regulate their association.
2)Moor and Cole:" Sociology studies plural behavior". By plural is meant that behavior of individuals
which is performed in relation to other individuals.
3)Max Weber: Sociology is the science which attempts the interpretative understanding of
social actions.
4) According to Duncan: - “Sociology is the scientific study of the processes of interactions of Persons”.
5) Durkheim explains: “sociology as the science of collective representation”
Educational sociology
Educational sociology is a new branch of sociology. It studies the relationship between education and society
and deals with the problem of relationship between education and society. Educational sociology means
Education through sociological point of view. A subject made by co-relation of education and sociology is
called educational sociology. Educational sociology is said to be the study of principles of sociology as applied
to the theory and practice of Education. It is new science which applies sociological principles to the whole
process of education. Educational sociology utilizes total educational interaction which helps in the
personality development of the individual so that he becomes a better social being. This science emphasizes
the progress of the society through medium of education. The educational sociology also tries to search a
suitable solution for problems related to society and education. This science throws light on different
institutions and on those social interactions which are of great importance in educational process.

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Foundations of Education by Hina Jalal (PhD Scholar GCUF)
Brown stated, “All education proceeds by the participation of the individual in the social consciousness of
the races”.
George penn described that “Educational sociology is a science which describes and discusses processes
of social relation which give experience to an individual and organizes a society”.
Nature of Educational Sociology
It helps in understanding the cultural, economic, social and political trends in relation
to formal and informal agencies of education.
Educational sociology aims to develop a curriculum that will adequately socialize
each individual student.
It tries to find out what would best contribute towards the child's personality
development and control the educative process to achieve personality development
of each single child.
Educational sociology studies the various types of social relationships and their impact
on individual development.
RELATIONSHIP OF SOCIOLOGY AND EDUCATION
The relationship of education and sociology can be cleared through following points.
• Sociology is the science of society and education in an implicit aspect of any social system.
• Sociology studies the structure and functions of social system, while education is one of the important
functions of any social system.
• The prime concern of sociology is socialized individuals. Education is the means for achieving the goals
of sociology.
• Education is the laboratory and workshop of sociology.
• Sociology attempts to ascertain the functions performed by the educational system while education
adopts the principles of sociology to improve its functioning.
• In the modern society, sociology generates the data base which is consumed by educational system to
realize the goal of social life.
• Sociology develops the law and principles which are adopted by the educational system for its
improvement.
5.2 Sociological roles in education
world is changing rapidly communications and the economy are becoming globalized. Career success requires
increasingly advanced skills. A society ensures its unity and survival by means of culture. Culture is the way
of thinking and behaving. It is collection of traditions, memories, written records, rules, ideas, beliefs, habits,
and values. According to one ideology, society want to preserve the ideas, beliefs and values and transmit the
same to the next generations. This ideology is social conservation
Technology, globalization, and modernization are constantly affecting the ideas, beliefs, and values of the
society. In the light of modern threats, ideas, beliefs, and values are critically evaluated. As a result, new ideas,
beliefs, and values are created. This is the creative role of the society which focuses on development of new
ideas, beliefs and values which are more beneficial.

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Foundations of Education by Hina Jalal (PhD Scholar GCUF)
a) Conservative
Social conservatism is the belief that society is built upon a fragile network of relationships which need to
be upheld through duty, traditional values, and established institutions. This can include moral issues. Social
conservatism is generally skeptical of social change, and believes in maintaining the status quo concerning
social issues.
Literally it means opposing great or sudden changes. It is political or moral ideology according to which
certain values or behaviors are enforced, maintained, or encouraged. It is thought that these values or
behaviors keep the people decent and civilized. These values or behaviors are not universal or accepted by all
social groups. Different social groups accept different values and behaviors and maintain then. However, there
are number of values and behaviors to which at least most social conservatives adhere.
b) Critical
All the values and behaviors do not achieve the status of universal acceptance at all the times. Globalization,
modernization, technology and changing family patterns affect them positively or negatively. People give
judgments regarding values and behaviors in the light of factors affecting them. These values and behaviors
are put to test. Critical thinking involves thinking reflectively and evaluating the ideas, value, and behaviors.
This is the critical role of the society that values, and behaviors are not constant or permanent, they keep on
changing.
c) Creative
It means having power or ability to create with the help of intelligence and imagination. The role of society
is not stagnant. It is dynamic. The society develops new and novel ideas and beliefs. The societies which do
not create new ideas and beliefs cannot stand with the modern and changing world. The role of society to
create new ideas, beliefs and values is very important. This is the role based on which societies progress and
prosper.
5.3 Economic Foundation of Education
There are a variety of modern definitions of economics; some reflect evolving views of the subject or different
views among economists. Scottish philosopher Adam Smith (1776) defined as "an inquiry into the nature
and causes of the wealth of nations", in particular as “a branch of the science of a statesman or legislator (with
the twofold objectives of providing) a plentiful revenue or subsistence for the people ... (and) to supply the
state or commonwealth with a revenue for the public services”.
Alfred Marshall provides a still widely cited definition in his textbook Principles of Economics (1890) that
is “Economics is a study of man in the ordinary business of life. It enquires how he gets his income and how
he uses it. Thus, it is on the one side, the study of wealth and on the other and more important side, a part of
the study of man”.
Economics is the social science that studies scientifically, the production, distribution, and consumption of
goods and services. Economics focuses on the behavior and interactions of economic agents and how
economies work. It is concerned with problems resulting from unlimited needs and limited resources. The
economics of education is a relatively new branch of the subject but is rapidly growing area.
It focuses on:
• Job or market-oriented education
• Skill learning
• Human Resource development
The economical foundation of education gives importance to the vocational aspect of the education. The
economic condition of a nation or a society guide the education of the country, because the stakeholder of the

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education wants to employ such as education which help them to build their economy and the people have
better jobs when they finish their schooling. In this kind of situation, the education become job or market
oriented. In this education the education developer gives importance to skills acquisition which is the demands
of the time. Undeveloped nations try to prepare skill work force and send it to other countries for jobs.
Relationship between economics and education
Economic foundation of education refers to those factors of individual and collective economic development
which are considered during the formulation of a system of education for a nation. A struggle for the
fulfillment of material needs of the individuals is the fundamental subject of economics. Education develops
the potentials and abilities of the individuals for the fulfillment of these needs. It can be clearly seen that there
is a close relationship between education and economies. This relationship is explained in the flowing lines:
• Education paves the way to the fulfillment of the economic needs of the individual and society. This close
relationship between education and economic needs has been acknowledged by the leading educational
economists of the world.
• Education trains the individuals of the society and. prepares them participate in the economic-oriented
activities in the society. This training provides necessary skillful manpower.
• A trained and skillful society is, basically an economically stable society. Thus, economic stability had deep
concerns with the educated society.
• Research in education has brought about many new theories of economic development. These theories have
opened new vistas of economic growth.
• Education uplifts the standard of living of the individuals. This increase in standard of living leads to the
increase in grant national incomes.
• Economic prosperity leads to the social stability. All these changes are the product of education.
• A financially satisfied person performs his social role effectively and efficiently. This financial satisfaction
brings about social agreeableness.
5.4 Education as Investment
Prior to the nineteenth century, systematic investment in human capital was not considered especially
important in any country. Expenditures on schooling, on-the-job training, and other similar forms of
investment were quite small. This began to change radically during this century with the application of science
to the development of new goods and more efficient methods of production, first in Great Britain, and then
gradually in other countries.
During the twentieth century, education, skills, and the acquisition of knowledge have become crucial
determinants of a person’s and a nation’s productivity. One can even call the twentieth century the “Age of
Human Capital” in the sense that the primary determinant of a country’s standard of living is how well it
succeeds in developing and utilizing the skills and knowledge and furthering the health and educating most
of its population.

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Education as investment in Development
Education in every sense is one of the fundamental factors of development. No country can achieve
sustainable economic development without substantial investment in human capital. Education raises people’s
productivity and creativity and promotes entrepreneurship and technological advances. In addition, it plays a
very crucial role in securing economic and social progress and improving income distribution.
Education as an investment in human capital
Education is considered as an investment in human capital. Human capital can be described as the knowledge,
abilities and skills of an individual, acquired through education, training and experience, which help the latter
to be more productive and thus improve his potential income earning. Since it improves human capital, we
could say that education does affect economic growth predominantly, but, the impact of education on the
economic development is quite ambiguous.
Education as investment in Productivity
Clearly the educational provisions within any given country represent one of the main determinants of the
composition and growth of that country’s output and exports and constitute an important ingredient in a
system’s capacity to borrow foreign technology effectively.
In agriculture, evidence suggests positive effects of education on productivity among farmers using modern
technologies, but less impact, as might be expected, among those using traditional methods.
Education alone, of course cannot transform an economy. The quantity and quality of investment, domestic
and foreign, together with the overall policy environment, form the other important determinants of economic
performance. Yet the level of human development has a bearing on these factors too.
Education as investment in income
There is also a positive feedback from improved education to greater income equality, which,
in turn, is likely to favor higher rates of growth. As education becomes more broadly based,
low-income people are better able to seek out economic opportunities. A cursory examination of studies based
on census data reveals that earnings increase with education and that the social rate of return to education is
at least equal to the return available to society on other investments.
5.5 Education and national development: Pakistani perspective
National Development
National development is the ability of a county or countries to improve the social welfare of the people e.g.
by providing social amenities like quality education, potable water, transportation infrastructure, food,
medical care, etc. Education is a crucial sector in any nation. Being a major investment in human capital
development, it plays a critical role in long-term productivity and growth at both micro and macro levels. The
overall development of all national groups is essential for the development and progress of human society,
but this is not possible without universal education. It is for this reason that the U.N.O. is making efforts to
provide education to the backward countries. In every country effort are made to develop a sense of belonging
among its citizens, and the sense of nationality. It helps to induce the individual to do his best for the nation,
besides almost every nation has its own plan of national education which seeks to fulfill the functions of the
nation.
In advance socialize, science and education are the main development factors. This is because education
essentially stimulates the quality of human capital on which depend the successful use of available natural
resources and monetary capital of a country. Therefore, some little countries, which are rather poor in natural

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resources can be explained by their development policy, which has promoted science and education, making
them their national developmental priorities.
Education is a vital investment for human and economic development and is influenced by the environment
within which it exists. Changes in technology, labor market patterns and general global environment, all
require policy responses. Traditions, culture and faith all reflect upon the education system and at the same
time are also affected by them. The element of continuity and change remains perpetual and it is up to the
society to determine its pace and direction. We are living in an inquiring and innovation-oriented society. The
demand of twenty first century is novelty, creativity, and integration of knowledge at global level, research,
critical and analytical thoughts. Rapidly social changes are creating uncertainty and complexity in the society.
To prepare the children and youth to cope with the present situation needs to develop analytical and critical
thinking, skill and attitude that would make them more flexible and innovative to deal with uncertainty and
crises at national and global level.
Education and national development: Pakistani perspective
The key to success for any nation lies in their concern and development of education sector. As the education
is promoted in the nation, this reduces the illiteracy rate that ultimately reduces the unemployment, which is
one of the biggest curses on any nation. The education sector in Pakistan is overlooked by the government
ministry of education and the provincial government, whereas the development of curriculum and financing
is done with the assistance of federal government. In the past few decades, Pakistan’s education has been
developing continuously, which eventually helps the development of the entire nation. Article 37-B of
Constitution of Pakistan forces the state to remove illiteracy from country and provide free compulsory
education.
The real situation of education in Pakistan is very different in context to the laws in Constitution of Pakistan.
The education system in Pakistan is generally divided into five levels: primary (Grades 1 through 5), middle
(Grades 6 through 8), high (Grades 9 and 10, leading to the secondary school certificate [SSC]), intermediate
(Grades 11 and 12, leading to a higher secondary (school) certificate [HSC]), and university programs (leading
to undergraduate and graduate degrees).
Present Conditions
Education provides the bedrock for reducing poverty and enhancing social development. An educational
system of poor quality may be one of the most important reasons why poor countries do not grow. Pakistan
needs to educate its masses up to a level where they can understand their own responsibilities, as well as that
of the governing bodies. They must be able to earn their own living and contribute to promoting the welfare
of the society. This is most urgent and must be accomplished without further delay and calls for a sincere and
dedicated effort to implement a carefully designed course curricula of compulsory education for all.
All education policies of Pakistan since 1947s laid exclusive emphasis on achieving high literacy and
compulsory primary education for all. All National Education Policies (NEP) prescription included the
following:
1. Education for all (EFA) goals and millennium development goals relating to education enrollment at the
primary level will be enhanced to 100% by 2015;
2. The literacy rate will be enhanced to 86% by 2015;
3. The allocation for education would be 7% of the national gross domestic product (GDP) by 2015;

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4. A bachelor’s degree in education shall be the minimum requirement for teaching at the elementary level.
A master’s degree with a Bachelor of Education (B.Ed.) for the secondary and higher secondary shall be
ensured by 2018;
5. A common curricular framework in general as well as professional education shall be applied to educational
institutions in both the public and private sector. Governments shall take steps to bring the public and private
sectors in harmony through common standards, quality, and regulatory regimes.