The staff working in schools are the most important resource for today’s education systems, both educationally and financially. This report aims to provide guidance for the design of human resource policies that strengthen, recognise and preserve the positive impact that teachers, school leaders and other school staff have on their students. It offers an in-depth analysis of how human resource policies can make the best use of available resources to create supportive working environments and build both individual and collective professional capacity in schools. This includes the design of entry requirements, career structures, salary schedules and working time arrangements to attract, retain and motivate high-quality staff; the effective and equitable matching of staff with schools through fair and transparent staff funding and recruitment; and informed investments in professional learning, from initial preparation to continuing development. Throughout its analysis, the report looks at implementation challenges and considers under which conditions human resource policy reforms are most likely to have the desired effects on schools and their staff. This report is the third in a series of thematic comparative reports bringing together findings from the OECD School Resources Review. This report was co-funded by the European Commission.

1. Working and Learning Together
-
Rethinking Human Resource Policies for
Schools
OECD School Resources Review
OECD Directorate for Education and Skills

2. Working and Learning Together:
Rethinking Human Resource Policies for Schools
2
What evidence is it based on?
Summary of the state of the art in
teacher and school leadership policy
• Latest OECD data and systematic
review of academic research
• New analyses of relevant data
Contextualised policy analysis based on
• 18 national reports
• 12 in-depth OECD country reviews
• 21 country responses to an
explorative data collection on
national policy frameworks
What does this report offer?
A perspective on human
resource policies considering all
adults working in and with
schools
• Teachers
• School leaders
• Support staff and others
Focus on resource implications
and implementation challenges
Policy approaches to support
effective working environments
in schools

3. WHY RETHINK HUMAN RESOURCE
POLICIES?
3

4. Long-standing evidence that teachers have a profound
impact on student learning
• How to strengthen, recognize and preserve this
contribution?
Growing recognition of collective capacity in schools as a key
element of effective schools
• How to support effective collaboration and distribution of
responsibilities?
People are the most important resource in schools
Both individually and collectively
4

5. School systems employ staff in a wide range
of roles and the mix of staff in schools varies
across countries, depending e.g. on:
• Teacher task profiles and responsibilities
• Changing student needs
• Inclusion policies
• Learning time arrangements
• School responsibilities / decentralisation
19 Country profiles offer comparative
information on school staffing frameworks
5
People are the most important resource in schools
Both individually and collectively

6. -4 000
-3 000
-2 000
-1 000
0
1 000
2 000
3 000
Contribution of theoretical class size
Contribution of teaching time
Contribution of instruction time
Contribution of teachers' salary
Difference of salary cost of teachers per student from OECD average
USD
Contribution of various factors to per-student salary costs of teachers, ISCED 1, 2017
In USD converted using Purchasing Power Parities (PPPs) for private consumption.
Source: Education at a Glance 2019, Figure C7.2 (link)
People are the most important resource in schools
Also from a financial perspective

7. I regret that I decided to become a
teacher
I think that the teaching profession is
valued in society
I wonder whether it would have been
better to choose another profession
If I could decide again, I would still
choose to work as a teacher
The advantages of being a teacher
clearly outweigh the disadvantages
Persistent challenges for staff in schools
Low perceived status of school-level professions
Share of lower secondary teachers who "agree" or "strongly agree" with the following statements:
76.0
75.6
33.8
25.8
9.1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
OECD average-31
%
Source: TALIS 2018, Vol. I. Table I.4.34

8. Persistent challenges for staff in schools
Shortages of teachers and leaders
Source: PISA 2015, Vol. II, Table II.6.14
0.0
10.0
20.0
30.0
40.0
50.0
60.0
70.0
To some extent A lot
Percentage of students in schools whose principal reported that the school's capacity
to provide instruction is hindered by a lack of teaching staff
%

9. Persistent challenges for staff in schools
Shortcomings in professional learning
Source: OECD (2019), TALIS 2018: Vol I, Tables I.5.1., I.5.7 and I.5.15.
Percentage of teachers who took part in professional development activities /
reported that they had a positive impact on their teaching practice
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
Participated in professional development activities Felt professional development had a positive impact on their teaching practices
%

10. Three main policy questions to address persistent challenges:
• How to design attractive career structures and salary scales?
• How to ensure all schools have the professionals they need?
• How to encourage continuous professional learning?
Human resource policies for schools = the regulations and principles of
action that shape who school staff are and what they do, through
their influence on careers, staff distribution and professional learning.
10
What policies can support school systems in
resolving key staffing challenges?

11. The study’s analytical framework emphasises:
professional agency, collective capacity, effective resourcing
11
Source: OECD (2019), Working and Learning Together, Figure 1.3

12. SIX POLICY APPROACHES
TO SUPPORT EFFECTIVE WORKING
ENVIRONMENTS IN SCHOOLS
12

13. 13
1. Design career structures with opportunities for professional growth
2. Establish salary scales that attract new entrants and reward growing expertise
3. Review the staff mix and working time arrangements
4. Ensure an effective and equitable distribution of school staff
5. Adopt a broad vision of initial preparation for teaching and school leadership
6. Support continuing professional learning and collaboration
6 Policy Approaches to Support Effective
Working Environments in Schools

14. DESIGNING CAREER STRUCTURES WITH
OPPORTUNITIES FOR PROFESSIONAL
GROWTH
14

15. School systems need to consider both intrinsic and
extrinsic motivations of adults working in schools
Source: TALIS 2018, Vol. I , Fig I.4.1
Percentage of teachers who report that the following
elements were of "moderate" or "high" importance in
becoming a teacher
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Teaching allowed me to influence the development of children
and young people
Teaching allowed me to provide a contribution to society
Teaching allowed me to benefit the socially disadvantaged
Teaching was a secure job
Teaching provided a reliable income
The teaching schedule fit with responsibilities in my personal life
Teaching offered a steady career path
%

16. Lack of opportunities for professional growth for teachers
• Teacher career structures are traditionally “flat”
• Only 8/20 OECD review countries offer multi-stage career structures for teachers
Strong emphasis on formal qualifications and experience in advancements
• All but one OECD review country require a given level of seniority for career advancement and formal
qualifications are a more wide-spread criterion than performance
Potential for more articulated leadership career pathways
• The majority of OECD review countries does not offer a well-defined career structure for school leaders
16
Traditional teaching careers provide few opportunities for
professional growth and distributed leadership (1)

17. 17
Traditional teaching careers provide few opportunities for
professional growth and distributed leadership (2)
Single-stage career
• Austria
• Belgium
• Chile
• Colombia
• Denmark
• Iceland
• Luxembourg
• Portugal
• Spain
• Turkey
• Uruguay
Multi-stage career
• Czech Republic
• Estonia
• Kazakhstan
• Lithuania
• Mexico
• Slovak Republic
• Slovenia
• Sweden
Source: OECD (2019), Working and Learning Together, based on
Table 2.1

18. Articulating vertical and horizontal career paths for teachers
• Vertical promotions provide formal recognition and higher responsibilities
– Examples: Czech Republic, Kazakhstan, Lithuania, Slovenia
• Horizontal diversification provides greater autonomy to specialize in particular roles
– Examples: Austria, Chile, Uruguay
• “Career lattice” structures combine vertical progression and horizontal specialisation
– Examples: Singapore, Slovak Republic
Career structures for school leaders can extend both ways and include
• Middle leadership positions to allow more distributed forms of leadership
• System leadership positions to share and spread good practice
– Example: Denmark
18
Designing attractive and motivating career paths (1)

19. Singapore’s career structure
19
Designing attractive and motivating career paths (2)

20. ESTABLISHING SALARY SCALES THAT
ATTRACT NEW ENTRANTS AND
REWARD GROWING EXPERTISE
20

21. Staff compensation is not always commensurate with
responsibilities, both for teachers…
Teachers' salaries relative to earnings for tertiary-educated workers aged 25 to 64, 2011-2017
21
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
Primary education
2011 2017
Ratio
Source: OECD (2019), Working and Learning Together, Figure 2.1, based on Education at a Glance 2019

22. Minimum and maximum statutory salaries for lower secondary teachers and school heads
(ISCED 2), 2017
22
… and school leaders
Source: OECD (2019), Working and Learning Together, Figure 2.4, based on Education at a Glance 2019
0
20000
40000
60000
80000
100000
120000
140000
160000
Salary range of teachers (most prevalent qualification) School head - Minimum School head - Maximum
Equivalent USD converted using PPPs

23. Salary progression of lower secondary teachers, 2018
Annual statutory salaries of teachers in public institutions, in equivalent USD converted using PPPs
23
Balancing competitive starting salaries with
attractive earnings progression
0
20 000
40 000
60 000
80 000
100 000
120 000
140 000
160 000
Starting salary/minimum qualifications
Salary after 15 years of experience/most prevalent qualifications
Salary at top of scale/maximum qualifications
Equivalent USD converted using PPPs
Source: OECD (2019), Working and Learning Together, Figure 2.2, based on Education at a Glance 2019

24. Salary scales can attract and retain high-calibre candidates
 Balancing competitive starting salaries w/ attractive earnings
progression
What factors should determine teachers’ salary progression?
• Professional development?
• Growing responsibilities?
• Performance?
– Risks and unintended consequences
– Individual and group level incentives
 Linking salaries to career advancement creates a more indirect link
between pay and professional growth
24
Linking salary scales to professional growth

25. REVIEWING THE STAFF MIX AND WORKING
TIME ARRANGEMENTS IN SCHOOLS
25

26. Teachers' working hours (ISCED 2), 2018
26
Teachers’ work involves many, sometimes
competing responsibilities
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Total working hours Teaching Lesson planning / preparation
Collaboration / dialogue with peers Marking / correcting Administrative work
Source: OECD (2019), Working and Learning Together, Figure 2.6, based on TALIS 2018

27. 27
Average proportion of time lower secondary principals report spending curriculum and teaching-related
tasks and meetings, 2018
And large administrative workloads for principals
can take time away from pedagogical leadership
Source: TALIS 2018, Vol. I Fig I.2.11
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Korea
Japan
Kazakhstan
Israel
Chile
Alberta(Canada)
NewZealand
Mexico
Spain
Italy
UnitedStates
France
Lithuania
SlovakRepublic
England(UK)
Slovenia
OECDaverage-30
Colombia
CzechRepublic
Austria
Hungary
Belgium
Flemish(Belgium)
Estonia
Turkey
Latvia
Finland
Denmark
Iceland
Portugal
Sweden
Norway
Netherlands
% of working time
16%

28. The extent to which teachers and school leaders are
supported by other staff varies considerably
28
0.1
0.2
0.5
0.3 0.6-0.9
0.7
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
2018 2013
Staff ratio
Source: OECD (2019), Working and Learning Together, Figure 1.1, based on TALIS 2018
Change in pedagogical support staff (ISCED 2), 2013-2018
Number of pedagogical support staff per ten teachers

29. 29
Teachers' administrative work and support (ISCED 2), 2018
But hiring additional support staff might neither be sufficient
nor necessary to ease teachers’ administrative burden
Canada (Alberta)
Chile
Czech Republic
Denmark
UK (England)
Estonia
Finland
Belgium (Fl.)
France
Iceland
Israel
Italy
Japan
Korea
Latvia
Mexico
Netherlands
Norway
PortugalSlovak Republic
Spain
Sweden
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Ratio of teachers to administrative or management personnel
Hours spent on administrative tasks
Source: OECD (2019), Working and Learning Together, Figure 2.7,
based on TALIS 2018

30. Ensuring that teachers’ and school leaders’ working time reflects their range of tasks
 Clarify task expectations for teachers and school leaders
 Help staff prioritise among various and competing claims on their time
 Provide employment contracts based on a workload system rather than or in addition to their
teaching hours
 Provide a good balance of autonomy and supports for school staff to collaborate
Reviewing the mix of staff and the use of their time in schools
 Draw on wide range of staff working in schools to support students’ holistic learning
 Invest in research to understand staff time use / staffing needs and to inform resource allocations
 Redistribute leadership responsibilities within schools and systems
 Build human resource management capacity within schools
Reviewing staff mix and working time arrangements

31. ENSURING AN EFFECTIVE AND EQUITABLE
DISTRIBUTION OF SCHOOL STAFF
31

32. 32
Recruitment systems may work against novice teachers
and channel them to the most difficult schools
Distribution of novice teachers by concentration of students from
socio-economically disadvantaged homes (ISCED 2), 2018
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
Estonia
Turkey
Belgium(Fl.)
France
Alberta(Canada)
UnitedStates
Belgium
Austria
England(UK)
Kazakhstan
NewZealand
Spain
Mexico
OECDaverage-31
Chile
Hungary
Sweden
Japan
Denmark
Lithuania
Portugal
Italy
Israel
Colombia
Percentagepointdifferencebetweenschools
with“morethan”and“lessthanorequalto”
30%ofstudentsfromsocio-economically
disadvantagedhomes
Source: OECD (2019), Working and Learning Together, Figure 3.7,
based on TALIS 2018
Less novice
teachers in schools
in low SES context
More novice
teachers in
schools in low
SES context

33. Financial incentives can be effective, but work differently
depending on context and require evaluation and monitoring
Source: OECD (2019), Working and Learning Together, Table 3.7

34. Ensuring an adequate supply of professionals and facilitating a good matching process
 Collecting data on skills needs, involving stakeholders, and ensuring a good flow of
information
 Collaborate in the recruitment of staff and build school capacity for staff recruitment
Tackling inequities in the distribution of teachers and school leaders
 Design and implement equitable and transparent funding systems
 Make schools supportive places for staff to work with students
 Prepare school leaders for effective staff assignments within schools
Additional strategies are necessary to promote the
effective and equitable staffing of schools

35. SUPPORTING INITIAL AND CONTINUING
PROFESSIONAL LEARNING

36. Teachers' sense of preparedness for different elements of teaching (ISCED 2), 2018
Percentage of teachers who felt "not at all" or "somewhat prepared" for the following elements
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Pedagogy of some or all subjects taught (%)
Classroom practice in some or all subjects taught (%)%
Source: OECD (2019), Working and Learning Together, Figure 4.1,
based on TALIS 2018
Many teachers leave initial teacher education feeling
unprepared for the realities of the classroom

37. New teachers do not always benefit from induction
Induction and mentoring for beginning teachers (ISCED 2), 2018
Results based on responses of teachers with five years of experience or less
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Formal induction Informal induction Mentoring
Source: OECD (2019), Working and Learning Together, Figure 4.2,
based on TALIS 2018

38. Supporting effective forms of professional learning
remains a challenge (1)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Courses/seminars attended in person
Reading professional literature
Education conferences
Peer and/or self-observation and coaching as part of a
formal arrangement
Participation in a professional development network
Online courses/seminars
Other types of professional development activities
Percentage of teachers who participated in the following professional
development activities
TALIS average-48
Source: OECD, TALIS 2018, VOL I, Table
I.5.7

39. Supporting effective forms of professional learning
remains a challenge (2)
Overemphasis on
formal structures
or roles
Source: OECD (2019), Working and Learning Together, Table 4.5

40. Linking initial learning to schools
 Ensure teacher candidates have extensive opportunities for situated learning in school settings
 Invest in teacher and school leader residency programmes
 Link initial training to formal induction and coaching
Adopting a systematic approach to professional learning
 Support high-quality, individualised coaching for teachers and leaders
 Identify opportunities and support for school-based learning teams
 Support schools to develop coherent adult learning goals that suit the community they serve
 Invest in monitoring tools to permit schools to capture teaching and learning strategies that work
Supporting professional learning and growth

41. 41
1. Design career structures with opportunities for professional growth
2. Establish salary scales that attract new entrants and reward growing expertise
3. Review the staff mix and working time arrangements
4. Ensure an effective and equitable distribution of school staff
5. Adopt a broad vision of initial preparation for teaching and school leadership
6. Support continuing professional learning and collaboration
Summing up

42. 42
All publications of the School Resources Review can be found at:
www.oecd.org/edu/school/schoolresourcesreview.htm
For further information, contact:
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