5. 1
INTRODUCTION
Programmed instruction is a method of presenting new
subject matters to students in a graded sequence of controlled steps. Programmed
Instruction was developed by B. F. Skinner. Students work through the programmed
material by themselves at their own speed and after each step test their comprehension
by answering an examination question or filling in a diagram. They are then immediately
shown the correct answer or given additional information. Computers and other types of
teaching machines are often used to present the material, although books may also be
used.
It’s main focus is to bring desirable change in the cognitive
domain of the learner’s behaviour. The structure of teaching method is that the selected
content is analyzedand broken into smaller elements.Each element is independent and
complete in itself .The programmer develops frames based on each element.
Responses are also provider to the learner in some different leaflets. The correct
response of the learner is the new knowledge. Immediate confirmation of correct
response provides reinforcement to the learner and proceeds to the next frame. Wrong
responses requried feedbacks.
6. 2
COMPONENTS
The components of programmed instruction are:
Behavioural objectives, clearly stated
Small frames of instruction, carefully sequenced
Self-pacing instructional sections, units,modules
Active learner response to questions
Immediate feedback and positive reinforcement
Steps in programmedinstruction design
Specify the goals of instruction:what is to be learned.
Identify the entry skills of the learners,i.e.what is the current level of skills of the
learners.
Develop a series of steps that will get the students form where they are to where
they should be.
Instruction is programmed in small steps , i.e.successive approximations to the
desired behaviour.
Provide appropriate reinforcement.
7. 3
Types of Programmed Instruction:
1. Linear programming
2. Branched programming
Linear programming
The founder of this programming is B.F.Skinner. It is based on theory of
operant conditioning. It tells that” A certain direction can be given to human behaviour”,
for this purpose activities is needed to divide in small parts and make their analysis.
Linear programming is based on five fundamental principles-
1. Principles of small step.
2. Principle of Active responding.
3. Principle of immediate confirmation.
4. Principle of self pacing.
5. Principle of student testing.
8. 4
The assumption behind the linear programming is that student learns better if
content is presented in small units, student response if immediately confirmed, results in
better learning, student’s error create hindrance in learning. Student learns better in
Laissez fairy environment.
Frame size in small steps; include only one element of topic at a time. Each
step is complete in itself. It can be taught independently and can be measured
independently. Frame structure is based on stimulus-response-reinforcement. There are
four types of frames. Introductory frames, Teaching frame, practice frames and testing
frames.
Responses in linear programming are structured responses and are controlled by
programmer and not by learners. Immediate confirmation of correct responses provide
reinforcement, wrong responses are ignored.
It is used for secondary level students, used for achieving lower objectives of learning
especially for recall and recognition, useful for student of average and below average
intelligence can be used in distance education programme.
Limitations of Linear programming-
1. No freedom for student to response.
2. Based on learning theories which were formulated by experience conducted on
animals. A human being is more intelligent, than animals, he has got an intelligent brain.
3. Every learner has to follow the same path; therefore, student may cheat from one
another.
4. Wrong responses are avoided in the programme. No remedy is provided for them.
9. 5
Branchedprogramming
The founder of Branched programming is Norman A Crowder. It is based on
configuration theory of learning. It is a problem solving approach. It is stimulus centered
approach of learning. It is based on three basic principles.
1. Principle of Exposition
2. Principle of Diagnosis
3. Principle of remediation.
Assumptions behind this programming are-
A. Student learns better if he is exposed to whole situation or content.
B. Student errors help in diagnosis.
C. Student learns better if remediation is provided side by side.
D. Student learns better in democratic environment.
Frame size is large. There may be a Para or page in the frame. Frame
structure is Exposition- Diagnosis- Remediation types. There are two types of frames-
Home page (for teaching and diagnosis) & Wrong pages (for remediation). Responses
not rigidly structured and responses are selected by learner and not by the programmer.
Confirmation of correct responses provides reinforcement. Wrong responses also help
in diagnosis of weaknesses of the learner. Remedy is provided on the basis of
diagnosed weaknesses of the learner. Error helps in diagnosis of the weaknesses of
learner. More than 20% error rate can be accepted. The purpose of Branched
programming is to draw out weak points of learner and provide remedy for recovering
those weaknesses.
Branched programming is used for secondary as well as higher classes.
Higher objectives can be achieved such as multiple discrimination etc. It is useful for
students of above average and high intelligence. It can also be used in Distance
education programmes.
10. 6
Limitations of Branched programming
1. It does not consider learning process whether learning is taking place or not. Main
emphasis is on diagnosing the weakness of learners and providing remedy to them.
2. There is no sequencing of pages. Student finds it difficult to follow the steps. He
does not find it exciting or motivating, therefore he does not want to go through these
pages.
3. More emphasis on remediation rather than teaching. Hence, it is only a tutorial
approach.
11. 7
ComputerAssisted Instruction (CAI)
A self-learning technique, usually offline/online, involving interaction
of the student with programmed instructional materials.Computer-assisted instruction
(CAI) is an interactive instructional technique whereby a computer is used to present the
instructional material and monitor the learning that takes place.CAI uses a combination
of text, graphics, sound and video in enhancing the learning process. The computer has
many purposes in the classroom, and it can be utilized to help a student in all areas of
the curriculum.CAI refers to the use of the computer as a tool to facilitate and improve
instruction. CAI programs use tutorials, drill and practice, simulation, and problem
solving approaches to present topics, and they test the student's understanding.
Typical CAI provides:
1. Text or multimedia content
2. Multiple-choice questions
3. Problems
4. Immediate feedback
5. Notes on incorrect responses
6. Summarizes students' performance
7. Exercises for practice
8. Worksheets and tests.
Types of Computer Assisted Instruction:
1. Drill-and-practice :Drill and practice provide opportunities or students to repeatedly
practice the skills that have previously been presented and that further practice is
necessary for mastery.
2. Tutorial Tutorial activity includes both the presentation of information and its
extension into different forms of work, including drill and practice, games and simulation.
3. Games Game software often creates a contest to achieve the highest score and
either beat others or beat the computer.
4. Simulation Simulation software can provide an approximation of reality that does not
require the expense of real life or its risks.
5. Discovery Discovery approach provides a large database of information specific to a
course or content area and challenges the learner to analyze, compare, infer and
evaluate based on their explorations of the data.
6. Problem Solving This approach helps children develop specific problem solving skills
and strategies
12. 8
Advantages of CAI
• one-to-one interaction
• great motivator
• freedom to experiment with different options
• instantaneous response/immediate feedback to the answers elicited
• Self pacing - allow students to proceed at their own pace
• Helps teacher can devote more time to individual students
• Privacy helps the shy and slow learner to learns
• Individual attention
• learn more and more rapidly
• multimedia helps to understand difficult concepts through multi sensory approach
• self directed learning – students can decide when, where, and what to learn.
Limitations of CAI
• may feel overwhelmed by the information and resources available
• over use of multimedia may divert the attention from the content
• learning becomes too mechanical
• non availability of good CAI packages
• lack of infrastructure
13. 9
Computer Managed Instruction
The term computer managed instruction CMI
simply stands for the instruction managed with the help of computer technology. In CMI
the computer gathers, stores, and manages information to guide students through
individualised learning experience. It directly calls for the services and applications of
computers and applications of computers in the field of instruction.The information on a
student’s progress in working with the computerised program, namely his performance
on every test item, keeping track of his mistakes and strengths and providing a valuable
feedback to the teacher etc. can all be managed effectively by the computer. Such a
system which maintains this kind of book keeping along with the instructional
programme is called as CMI.CAI is more effective only when it is linked to CAI. It helps
to assess the learners present level of knowledge, weaknesses or gaps in his learning
and remedial action possible.
Four areas of computer management support to teachers are,
a. Constructing, scoring, and analysing tests.
b. Keeping records of student performance and progress through courses.
c. Providing guidance to students and advising them on the choice of next course
module.
d. Reporting on the performance and progress of students to individual students,
tutors and educational administrators of the institutions.
In CMI, on the basis of initial interaction with the student, the computer
suggests the type of models of instruction for him. The computer will note down the
attainment as well as draw backs of the learner in order to construct his profile. This
profile is used to plan the learning unit for the student, whether it should be modified,
enriched or a remedial module should be added. Student’s achievement is measured in
relation to criterion attainment with reference to the syllabus of the module and
assessed in relation to the course requirement. Following the computers decision, there
could be discussion with the student and teacher and the instruction of the student is so
managed that efficient personalised learning takes place. As said in the above
definition, computers are able to perform the task of managing instructions with the help
of a category of suitable software programme specifically designed for this purpose.
CMI analyses the relationship between various factors pertaining to a pupil and
suggests activities appropriate to individual students. Some of the functions performed
with the help of such developed soft wares related to the organization and management
of instructions are described below.
1. Diagnosis of entry behaviour of learners
Computer programmes help in the early diagnosis of the strengths and weakness
of the learners in terms of their previous knowledge and experiences related to a
14. 10
particular knowledge and skill area, their interests, attitudes and aptitudes, the needs
and motives as well as other personality traits for determining their potentiality for going
ahead in the learning of a particular instructional course or achieving a set of
instructional objectives.
2. Setting of instructional objectives
Computer soft wares are available that can help in analysing test data and other
data base information about the characteristics of the learners in relation to the needs
and purpose served by a particular type of instruction at one or the other stages of
school, college or public education. It will help in formulating the goals and objectives for
a particular coarse or piece of instruction.
3. Generating individualized instructional plans
Depending upon the need, characteristics, nature, and individuality of the
learners, computer software are able to generate and organize individualized
instructional plans for countless learners at one or the other times-average, gifted, slow,
disabled.
4. Generating instructional materials and learning experiences
Suiting to the individualized instructional plans and strategies computer software
can generate appropriate instructional material and opportunities of interactive learning
experiences to the learners of varying need, interests, and abilities. A huge data bank of
all types of information and instructional material is easily available through well
prepared software packages, websites, online conferencing, networking etc. The
material generated and developed for instructional purposes may be used on a
computer based system or in other forms of instructions. eg. Programmed instruction.
5.Availability of instructional material into curricular units
For the proper organization and management of the instructions, an inventory of
the instructional resources available to the learners may be stored in the computer’s
data bank. The total resources may be divided into properly required units having
clearly specified set of objectives. There shall be clear directions available for telling the
learner s what to do for achieving the stipulated objectives. It may asks them to read a
book, work-off self-administered paper and pencil exercises , conduct experiment with a
science kit, attend group instruction or see a film , and so on.
6.Monitoring of progress
The computer managed instruction proves very effective in monitoring the progress of
each and every individual learner.
15. 11
CONCLUSION
While not popular, programmed instruction continues to be used today. Recently
the application of programed instruction principles was reapplied to training in computer
programs, after some popularity in a series of books on functional programming and
combined with Benjamin Blooms taxonomy to teach college students. These
programmed instruction gives immediate feedback to the answer elicited and can learn
more and more rapidly.
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