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The Influence of Monetary and Fiscal Policy on Aggregate Demand
1.
Copyright © 2004
South-Western 3434The Influence of Monetary and Fiscal Policy on Aggregate Demand
2.
Copyright © 2004
South-Western Aggregate Demand • Many factors influence aggregate demand besides monetary and fiscal policy. • In particular, desired spending by households and business firms determines the overall demand for goods and services.
3.
Copyright © 2004
South-Western Aggregate Demand • When desired spending changes, aggregate demand shifts, causing short-run fluctuations in output and employment. • Monetary and fiscal policy are sometimes used to offset those shifts and stabilize the economy.
4.
Copyright © 2004
South-Western HOW MONETARY POLICY INFLUENCES AGGREGATE DEMAND • The aggregate demand curve slopes downward for three reasons: • The wealth effect • The interest-rate effect • The exchange-rate effect
5.
Copyright © 2004
South-Western HOW MONETARY POLICY INFLUENCES AGGREGATE DEMAND • For the U.S. economy, the most important reason for the downward slope of the aggregate-demand curve is the interest-rate effect.
6.
Copyright © 2004
South-Western The Theory of Liquidity Preference • Keynes developed the theory of liquidity preference in order to explain what factors determine the economy’s interest rate. • According to the theory, the interest rate adjusts to balance the supply and demand for money.
7.
Copyright © 2004
South-Western The Theory of Liquidity Preference • Money Supply • The money supply is controlled by the Fed through: • Open-market operations • Changing the reserve requirements • Changing the discount rate • Because it is fixed by the Fed, the quantity of money supplied does not depend on the interest rate. • The fixed money supply is represented by a vertical supply curve.
8.
Copyright © 2004
South-Western The Theory of Liquidity Preference • Money Demand • Money demand is determined by several factors. • According to the theory of liquidity preference, one of the most important factors is the interest rate. • People choose to hold money instead of other assets that offer higher rates of return because money can be used to buy goods and services. • The opportunity cost of holding money is the interest that could be earned on interest-earning assets. • An increase in the interest rate raises the opportunity cost of holding money. • As a result, the quantity of money demanded is reduced.
9.
Copyright © 2004
South-Western The Theory of Liquidity Preference • Equilibrium in the Money Market • According to the theory of liquidity preference: • The interest rate adjusts to balance the supply and demand for money. • There is one interest rate, called the equilibrium interest rate, at which the quantity of money demanded equals the quantity of money supplied.
10.
Copyright © 2004
South-Western The Theory of Liquidity Preference • Equilibrium in the Money Market • Assume the following about the economy: • The price level is stuck at some level. • For any given price level, the interest rate adjusts to balance the supply and demand for money. • The level of output responds to the aggregate demand for goods and services.
11.
Figure 1 Equilibrium
in the Money Market Quantity of Money Interest Rate 0 Money demand Quantity fixed by the Fed Money supply r2 M2 d Md r1 Equilibrium interest rate Copyright © 2004 South-Western
12.
Copyright © 2004
South-Western The Downward Slope of the Aggregate Demand Curve • The price level is one determinant of the quantity of money demanded. • A higher price level increases the quantity of money demanded for any given interest rate. • Higher money demand leads to a higher interest rate. • The quantity of goods and services demanded falls.
13.
Copyright © 2004
South-Western The Downward Slope of the Aggregate Demand Curve • The end result of this analysis is a negative relationship between the price level and the quantity of goods and services demanded.
14.
Figure 2 The
Money Market and the Slope of the Aggregate-Demand Curve Quantity of Money Quantity fixed by the Fed 0 Interest Rate Money demand at price levelP2 ,MD2 Money demand at price level P , MD Money supply (a) The Money Market (b) The Aggregate-Demand Curve 3. . . . which increases the equilibrium interest rate . . . 2. . . . increases the demand for money . . . Quantity of Output 0 Price Level Aggregate demand P2 Y2 Y P 4. . . . which in turn reduces the quantity of goods and services demanded. 1. An increase in the price level . . . r r2 Copyright © 2004 South-Western
15.
Copyright © 2004
South-Western Changes in the Money Supply • The Fed can shift the aggregate demand curve when it changes monetary policy. • An increase in the money supply shifts the money supply curve to the right. • Without a change in the money demand curve, the interest rate falls. • Falling interest rates increase the quantity of goods and services demanded.
16.
Figure 3 A
Monetary Injection MS2Money supply, MS Aggregate demand, AD YY P Money demand at price level P AD2 Quantity of Money 0 Interest Rate r r2 (a) The Money Market (b) The Aggregate-Demand Curve Quantity of Output 0 Price Level 3. . . . which increases the quantity of goods and services demanded at a given price level. 2. . . . the equilibrium interest rate falls . . . 1. When the Fed increases the money supply . . . Copyright © 2004 South-Western
17.
Copyright © 2004
South-Western Changes in the Money Supply • When the Fed increases the money supply, it lowers the interest rate and increases the quantity of goods and services demanded at any given price level, shifting aggregate-demand to the right. • When the Fed contracts the money supply, it raises the interest rate and reduces the quantity of goods and services demanded at any given price level, shifting aggregate-demand to the left.
18.
Copyright © 2004
South-Western The Role of Interest-Rate Targets in Fed Policy • Monetary policy can be described either in terms of the money supply or in terms of the interest rate. • Changes in monetary policy can be viewed either in terms of a changing target for the interest rate or in terms of a change in the money supply. • A target for the federal funds rate affects the money market equilibrium, which influences aggregate demand.
19.
Copyright © 2004
South-Western HOW FISCAL POLICY INFLUENCES AGGREGATE DEMAND • Fiscal policy refers to the government’s choices regarding the overall level of government purchases or taxes. • Fiscal policy influences saving, investment, and growth in the long run. • In the short run, fiscal policy primarily affects the aggregate demand.
20.
Copyright © 2004
South-Western Changes in Government Purchases • When policymakers change the money supply or taxes, the effect on aggregate demand is indirect—through the spending decisions of firms or households. • When the government alters its own purchases of goods or services, it shifts the aggregate- demand curve directly.
21.
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South-Western Changes in Government Purchases • There are two macroeconomic effects from the change in government purchases: • The multiplier effect • The crowding-out effect
22.
Copyright © 2004
South-Western The Multiplier Effect • Government purchases are said to have a multiplier effect on aggregate demand. • Each dollar spent by the government can raise the aggregate demand for goods and services by more than a dollar.
23.
Copyright © 2004
South-Western The Multiplier Effect • The multiplier effect refers to the additional shifts in aggregate demand that result when expansionary fiscal policy increases income and thereby increases consumer spending.
24.
Figure 4 The
Multiplier Effect Quantity of Output Price Level 0 Aggregate demand, AD1 $20 billion AD2 AD3 1. An increase in government purchases of $20 billion initially increases aggregate demand by $20 billion . . . 2. . . . but the multiplier effect can amplify the shift in aggregate demand. Copyright © 2004 South-Western
25.
Copyright © 2004
South-Western A Formula for the Spending Multiplier • The formula for the multiplier is: Multiplier = 1/(1 - MPC) • An important number in this formula is the marginal propensity to consume (MPC). • It is the fraction of extra income that a household consumes rather than saves.
26.
Copyright © 2004
South-Western A Formula for the Spending Multiplier • If the MPC is 3/4, then the multiplier will be: Multiplier = 1/(1 - 3/4) = 4 • In this case, a $20 billion increase in government spending generates $80 billion of increased demand for goods and services.
27.
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South-Western The Crowding-Out Effect • Fiscal policy may not affect the economy as strongly as predicted by the multiplier. • An increase in government purchases causes the interest rate to rise. • A higher interest rate reduces investment spending.
28.
Copyright © 2004
South-Western The Crowding-Out Effect • This reduction in demand that results when a fiscal expansion raises the interest rate is called the crowding-out effect. • The crowding-out effect tends to dampen the effects of fiscal policy on aggregate demand.
29.
Figure 5 The
Crowding-Out Effect Quantity of Money Quantity fixed by the Fed 0 Interest Rate r Money demand, MD Money supply (a) The Money Market 3. . . . which increases the equilibrium interest rate . . . 2. . . . the increase in spending increases money demand . . . MD2 Quantity of Output 0 Price Level Aggregate demand, AD1 (b) The Shift in Aggregate Demand 4. . . . which in turn partly offsets the initial increase in aggregate demand. AD2 AD3 1. When an increase in government purchases increases aggregate demand . . . r2 $20 billion Copyright © 2004 South-Western
30.
Copyright © 2004
South-Western The Crowding-Out Effect • When the government increases its purchases by $20 billion, the aggregate demand for goods and services could rise by more or less than $20 billion, depending on whether the multiplier effect or the crowding-out effect is larger.
31.
Copyright © 2004
South-Western Changes in Taxes • When the government cuts personal income taxes, it increases households’ take-home pay. • Households save some of this additional income. • Households also spend some of it on consumer goods. • Increased household spending shifts the aggregate- demand curve to the right.
32.
Copyright © 2004
South-Western Changes in Taxes • The size of the shift in aggregate demand resulting from a tax change is affected by the multiplier and crowding-out effects. • It is also determined by the households’ perceptions about the permanency of the tax change.
33.
Copyright © 2004
South-Western USING POLICY TO STABILIZE THE ECONOMY • Economic stabilization has been an explicit goal of U.S. policy since the Employment Act of 1946.
34.
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South-Western The Case for Active Stabilization Policy • The Employment Act has two implications: • The government should avoid being the cause of economic fluctuations. • The government should respond to changes in the private economy in order to stabilize aggregate demand.
35.
Copyright © 2004
South-Western The Case against Active Stabilization Policy • Some economists argue that monetary and fiscal policy destabilizes the economy. • Monetary and fiscal policy affect the economy with a substantial lag. • They suggest the economy should be left to deal with the short-run fluctuations on its own.
36.
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South-Western Automatic Stabilizers • Automatic stabilizers are changes in fiscal policy that stimulate aggregate demand when the economy goes into a recession without policymakers having to take any deliberate action. • Automatic stabilizers include the tax system and some forms of government spending.
37.
Copyright © 2004
South-Western Summary • Keynes proposed the theory of liquidity preference to explain determinants of the interest rate. • According to this theory, the interest rate adjusts to balance the supply and demand for money.
38.
Copyright © 2004
South-Western Summary • An increase in the price level raises money demand and increases the interest rate. • A higher interest rate reduces investment and, thereby, the quantity of goods and services demanded. • The downward-sloping aggregate-demand curve expresses this negative relationship between the price-level and the quantity demanded.
39.
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South-Western Summary • Policymakers can influence aggregate demand with monetary policy. • An increase in the money supply will ultimately lead to the aggregate-demand curve shifting to the right. • A decrease in the money supply will ultimately lead to the aggregate-demand curve shifting to the left.
40.
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South-Western Summary • Policymakers can influence aggregate demand with fiscal policy. • An increase in government purchases or a cut in taxes shifts the aggregate-demand curve to the right. • A decrease in government purchases or an increase in taxes shifts the aggregate-demand curve to the left.
41.
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South-Western Summary • When the government alters spending or taxes, the resulting shift in aggregate demand can be larger or smaller than the fiscal change. • The multiplier effect tends to amplify the effects of fiscal policy on aggregate demand. • The crowding-out effect tends to dampen the effects of fiscal policy on aggregate demand.
42.
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South-Western Summary • Because monetary and fiscal policy can influence aggregate demand, the government sometimes uses these policy instruments in an attempt to stabilize the economy. • Economists disagree about how active the government should be in this effort. • Advocates say that if the government does not respond the result will be undesirable fluctuations. • Critics argue that attempts at stabilization often turn out destabilizing.
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