2. Psychology, Fifth Edition, James S. Nairne
Chapter 7
What’s It For? Learning From Experience
• Noticing and Ignoring
• Learning What Events Signal
• Learning About the Consequences of Our
Behavior
• Learning from Others
3. Psychology, Fifth Edition, James S. Nairne
Chapter 7
Noticing and Ignoring: Learning Goal
1. Describe and compare habituation and
sensitization.
4. Psychology, Fifth Edition, James S. Nairne
Chapter 7
Habituation and Sensitization
• Orienting response: Turning toward a new
event
• After repeated exposure to an event:
– Habituation: Reduced responding to the
event
– Sensitization: Increased responding to the
event
5. Psychology, Fifth Edition, James S. Nairne
Chapter 7
Classical Conditioning: Learning Goals
1. Describe the basic elements of classical
conditioning.
2. Discuss why and how conditioned
responding develops.
3. Differentiate among second-order
conditioning, stimulus generalization, and
stimulus discrimination.
4. Discuss extinction and conditioned
inhibition.
6. Psychology, Fifth Edition, James S. Nairne
Chapter 7
Classical Conditioning Overview
• Technique developed to study how simple
associations form
• These associations allow us to prepare
ourselves for future events
– Example: Association between flash of
lightning and noise of thunder
7. Psychology, Fifth Edition, James S. Nairne
Chapter 7
Pavlov’s Discovery
• Pavlov (1849-1936): Russian physiologist
– Used dogs as research subjects in studies
of digestion
• Noticed that salivation often began before
food placed in their mouths
– Pavlov observed that some stimuli produce
automatic responses, and other stimuli can
start to produce those responses too
through a process of learning
8. Psychology, Fifth Edition, James S. Nairne
Chapter 7
The Terminology of Classical Conditioning
• Unconditioned stimulus (US): A stimulus that
automatically leads to a response prior to any
training
– Example: Food
• Unconditioned response (UR): The response
that is produced automatically, prior to
training, on presentation of US
– Example: Salivation
9. Psychology, Fifth Edition, James S. Nairne
Chapter 7
Terminology of Classical Conditioning,
continued…
• Conditioned stimulus (CS): Neutral stimulus
that is paired with the US during classical
conditioning
– Example: Feeder’s footsteps
• Conditioned response (CR): The learned
response produced by the conditioned
stimulus
– Example: Dog salivates (CR) when hearing
the feeder’s footsteps (CS)
11. Psychology, Fifth Edition, James S. Nairne
Chapter 7
Forming the CS-US Connection
• CS should function as a signal that the US is
about to occur
• Such a signal is most effective when it
– Comes before the US, not after it or at the
same time
– The US follows it closely in time
• Long delay -> Learning less likely
– Provides new information about the US
• Other stimuli may create “blocking”
12. Psychology, Fifth Edition, James S. Nairne
Chapter 7
Why Does Conditioned Responding
Develop?
• The CS doesn’t just “substitute” for the US
• CR isn’t always the same as the UR
– Example: Rats “freezing” instead of
jumping when a shock is about to occur
– Cognitive view of classical conditioning
• Second-order conditioning: Procedure in
which an established CS is used to condition
a second neutral stimulus
14. Psychology, Fifth Edition, James S. Nairne
Chapter 7
Stimulus Generalization
• Responding to a new stimulus in a way
similar to the response to an established CS
– Similar stimulus -> Similar CR
– Famous example created by J. Watson
• “Little Albert” conditioned to fear white
rats; fear extended to rabbits, fur coats
• Stimulus discrimination: Responding
differently to a new stimulus than one
responds to an established CS
15. Psychology, Fifth Edition, James S. Nairne
Chapter 7
Classical Conditioning
and Emotional Responses
• The classical conditioning of fear in an infant is
described in the following video clip.
17. Psychology, Fifth Edition, James S. Nairne
Chapter 7
Extinction: When the CS No Longer Signals
the US
• Extinction: Presenting a CS repeatedly, after
conditioning, without the US, resulting in a
loss in responding
– Example: Food no longer follows a bell, so
dog gradually stops salivating in response
to the bell
• Spontaneous recovery: Recovery of an
extinguished CR after a period of
nonexposure to the CS
18. Psychology, Fifth Edition, James S. Nairne
Chapter 7
Conditioned Inhibition: Signaling the
Absence of the US
• Learning that an event signals the absence of
the US
– Example: Bell + light = No food
• Won’t drool when the light is presented
• Might produce a response opposite of
original CR, such as leaving food area
• Conditioned inhibitors can serve as “safety
signals” when US is something dangerous
20. Psychology, Fifth Edition, James S. Nairne
Chapter 7
Operant Conditioning: Learning Goals
1. Define operant conditioning and discuss the
law of effect.
2. Explain what we mean by the discriminative
stimulus.
3. Define reinforcement and punishment and
distinguish between their positive and
negative forms.
4. Discuss and compare the different
schedules of reinforcement.
21. Psychology, Fifth Edition, James S. Nairne
Chapter 7
Operant Conditioning: Learning Goals,
continued…
1. Explain how complex behaviors can be
acquired through shaping.
2. Discuss how biological factors might limit the
responses that can be learned.
22. Psychology, Fifth Edition, James S. Nairne
Chapter 7
Learning About Consequences: Operant
Conditioning
• Procedure for studying how organisms learn
about the consequences of their own
voluntary actions
– Example: Learning that studying leads to a
good exam grade
• Law of effect (Thorndike)
– If a response is followed by a satisfying
consequence, it will be strengthened; if
followed by an unsatisfying consequence,
it will be weakened
25. Psychology, Fifth Edition, James S. Nairne
Chapter 7
The Discriminative Stimulus: Knowing When
to Respond
• Discriminative stimulus: Stimulus situation in
which a response will be followed by reward
or punishment
– Can be a particular situation or thing in the
environment
• May produce the behavior in response to a
similar stimulus (stimulus generalization),
unless it doesn’t produce same reward
(stimulus discrimination)
26. Psychology, Fifth Edition, James S. Nairne
Chapter 7
Reinforcement
• Response consequences that increase
likelihood of responding in a similar way
again.
• Positive reinforcement: An event’s
presentation following a response increases
the future probability of that response.
• Negative reinforcement: An event’s removal
following a response increases the future
probability of that response.
27. Psychology, Fifth Edition, James S. Nairne
Chapter 7
Positive Reinforcement
• Usually involves an appetitive stimulus --
something the organism needs, likes, wants
– However, what matters in defining it as
positive is the effect on behavior, not
subjective qualities
• Response deprivation: Event is reinforcing if it
allows you to engage in something that you’re
deprived of
– Example: Eating when you are very hungry
28. Psychology, Fifth Edition, James S. Nairne
Chapter 7
Negative Reinforcement
• Response leads to removal of some stimulus
– Example: Shutting off a loud alarm clock
• Escape conditioning: Response ends the
stimulus
– Example: Animal escaping ongoing shock
• Avoidance conditioning: Response prevents
the stimulus
– Example: Animal escaping before shock
29. Psychology, Fifth Edition, James S. Nairne
Chapter 7
Punishment
• Consequences that decrease the likelihood of
responding in a similar way again
• Positive punishment: Presentation of an event
after responding lowers likelihood of that
response
– Example: Scolding
• Negative punishment: Removal of an event
after responding lowers likelihood
– Example: Taking away allowance
30. Psychology, Fifth Edition, James S. Nairne
Chapter 7
Punishment: Practical Considerations
• Does effectively suppress behavior
– Example: A child fighting with a sibling
• Limitation: Does not promote better,
alternative behavior
– Example: Does not teach a child to
cooperate with sibling
– Better: Reinforce an alternative response
• May also increase aggression
31. Psychology, Fifth Edition, James S. Nairne
Chapter 7
Schedules of Reinforcement
• Pattern through time in the delivery of
reinforcement
• Continuous: Each response is followed
rapidly by reinforcement
– Example: Salesperson paid for each sale
• Partial: Reinforcement delivered only some of
the time
– Example: You don’t receive a smile or a
“thank you” each time you hold the door for
the person behind you
32. Psychology, Fifth Edition, James S. Nairne
Chapter 7
Partial Reinforcement
• Four schedules of partial reinforcement
defined by the combination of two dimensions
– Interval vs. ratio: Whether the schedule on
which reinforcement is delivered is based
on an amount of time passing (interval) or
on an amount of behavior performed (ratio)
– Fixed vs. variable: Whether the amount of
time or behavior is constant, or varies
around an average
33. Psychology, Fifth Edition, James S. Nairne
Chapter 7
Fixed-Ratio Schedules
• Reinforcement delivered following a set
amount of behavior
– Example: Salesperson paid for every 10
sales
• Tend to produce steady, consistent rates of
responding, but might stop for a period after
reinforcement
• Extinction when reinforcement no longer
given
34. Psychology, Fifth Edition, James S. Nairne
Chapter 7
Variable-Ratio Schedules
• A certain number of responses required for
reinforcement, but this number varies around
an average
– Example: “1 in 12 wins!” soft-drink bottle-
cap promotions -- you may win a free drink
twice in a row, or you have to buy 15
before winning
• Extinction takes much longer
35. Psychology, Fifth Edition, James S. Nairne
Chapter 7
Interval Schedules
• Fixed interval: Reinforcement delivered for
first response after a fixed interval of time
– Example: Monthly paycheck
– Tend to produce low rates of responding
• “Scalloping” pattern
• Variable interval: Time until reinforcement
changes
– Example: Weekly pop quizzes
37. Psychology, Fifth Edition, James S. Nairne
Chapter 7
Acquiring Complex Behaviors: Shaping
• Problem: Complex behaviors unlikely to occur
spontaneously, so they are hard to reinforce
• Solution: Shaping
– A procedure in which reinforcement is
delivered for successive approximations of
the desired response
– Or: Demanding behaviors closer to the
desired one before reinforcement is given
38. Psychology, Fifth Edition, James S. Nairne
Chapter 7
Biological Constraints on Learning
• With enough time and reinforcers, is it
possible to teach just any response?
• Genetic constraints influence what can be
learned
– Example: Animals have innate tendencies
that limit what they can be trained to do
– Humans also have innate tendencies to
learn certain things more easily
• Example: Fear of snakes
39. Psychology, Fifth Edition, James S. Nairne
Chapter 7
Observational Learning: Learning Goals
1. Describe observational learning and the
conditions that lead to effective modeling.
2. Explain why observational learning is
adaptive and discuss its practical effects.
40. Psychology, Fifth Edition, James S. Nairne
Chapter 7
Observational Learning: Overview
• Learning that occurs as a result of observing
the experiences of others
• Consider: What would life be like if you could
only learn through your own trial and error?
– Adaptive to learn from others
• Observational learning occurs in many
species, including chimpanzees, rhesus
monkeys, and some birds
41. Psychology, Fifth Edition, James S. Nairne
Chapter 7
Modeling
• Natural tendency to imitate behavior of
significant others
• Strongest when
– Model is viewed positively
– Model is rewarded for the behavior
• Bandura: Showed children a film of an adult
hitting a “Bobo” doll
– Children imitated behavior, especially
when the adult was praised for the
aggression
42. Psychology, Fifth Edition, James S. Nairne
Chapter 7
Observational Learning: Practical
Considerations
• Particularly relevant to children
• Modeling techniques such as films have been
used to reduce fears, promote positive
behavior
• However, television may produce modeling of
negative behaviors
– Aggression
– Gender stereotyping
– Unrealistic beliefs about society
Notes de l'éditeur
The Chapter 7 slides are relevant to APA Outcomes 1.2a(1) and 1.2d(1), as they relate to the specific domain of learning and to the broader issue of nature vs. nurture. Learning is the crux of the behavioral perspective in psychology; Outcome 1.4 is thus also relevant. Specific slides are additionally relevant to other outcomes as noted on the notes page associated with the relevant slide.
Antecedents and consequences -- Outcome 1.3b -- are distinguished early in a discussion of learning.
This slide entails a discussion of antecedents -- Outcome 1.3b.
This slide describes the beginnings of behaviorism with Pavlov’s work and is thus relevant to Outcomes 1.2b and 1.4.
Both classical and operant conditioning feature terminology that is new to beginning psychology students but is universally used as part of day-to-day language among psychologists. A discussion of conditioning thus brings Outcome 1.3 into relief.
Figure 7.2. Through classical conditioning, organisms learn about the signaling properties of events. The presentation of an unconditioned stimulus (US) leads to an automatic unconditioned response (UR) prior to training. A neutral stimulus is paired closely in time with a US. Eventually, the animal learns that this conditioned stimulus (CS) predicts the occurrence of the US and begins to show an appropriate conditioned response (CR) on presentation of the CS.
Figure 7.3. In second-order conditioning, an established CS is used in place of a US to condition a second signal. In Dr. Frolov’s experiment, a ticking metronome was first paired with food; after repeated pairings, the ticking elicited salivation as a CR. Next, a black square - which did not produce salivation initially - was paired with the ticking (no US was presented). After repeated pairings, the presentation of the black square began to produce salivation.
The discussion of Little Albert affords an opportunity to address the ethics of research -- Outcome 1.2e.
Figure 7.6. In conditioned inhibition, the CS provides information about the absence of the US. Pigeons will approach and peck at a keylight CS that signals the appearance of food (upper panel), but they will withdraw from a keylight CS signaling no food (lower panel). Notice that the withdrawal response is an indication that the red light has become a conditioned inhibitor - a CS that predicts the absence of food.
The discussion of Thorndilke’s law of effect reaches back into psychology’s history -- Outcome 1.2b.
Figure 7.7. In classical conditioning (top row), food is delivered independently of the rat’s behavior. The light CS signals the automatic arrival of the food US. In operant conditioning (bottom row), the rat must press the bar in the presence of the light in order to get the food. The light serves as a discriminative stimulus, indicating that pressing the bar will now produce the food.
Figure 7.8. In Thorndike’s famous experiments on animal intelligence, cats learned that some kind of unusual response - such as pressing a lever or tilting a pole - allowed them to escape from a puzzle box. The graph shows that the time required to escape gradually diminished over learning trials. Here the cat is learning that its behavior is instrumental in producing escape. (Based on Weiten, 1995.)
This discussion of punishment, schedules of reinforcement, shaping, and observational learning that occupy the remaining slides in Ch.7 lend themselves especially well to progress toward Outcomes 4.4, 9.2, and 9.3 -- applying psychology to daily life and effective self-regulation and self-management.
Figure 7.9. Schedules of reinforcement are rules that the experimenter uses to determine when responses will be reinforced. Ratio schedules tend to produce rapid rates of responding because reinforcement depends on the number of responses. Interval schedules tend to produce lower rates of responding because reinforcement is delivered only for the first response after a specified time interval. In the cumulative response functions plotted here, the total number of responses is plotted over time.
