Seal of Good Local Governance (SGLG) 2024Final.pptx
Introduction to Quantitative and Qualitative Research and Basic Research Ethics
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An Introduction to Quantitative and Qualitative
Research and
Basic Research Ethics
For Teaching in Senior High School
presented by Jean Lee C. Patindol, 10/25/19
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Quantitative Research
An APPROACH to research to understand differences
(Hutchinson, n.d.). More specifically, it is used to determine:
Differences between groups
Statistical significance, magnitude, and direction of
differences
Change over time
Direction, magnitude, and between-group differences
Relationships between 2 or more variables
Direction, magnitude, type/form, between-group differences
Descriptions of populations and phenomena
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Qualitative Research
An APPROACH to research that “emphasizes the qualities of
entities, processes and meanings that are not experimentally
examined or measured in terms of quantity, amount, intensity or
frequency” (Denzin and Lincoln, 2008)
Quality refers to a thing’s essence or ambiance
Refers to the meanings, concepts, definitions,
characteristics, metaphors, symbols and description of
things (Berg, 2007)
The research questions often stress how social experience is
created and given meaning
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3 Research Approaches
Qualitative
“Words, not numbers”
Usually involves a philosophical
stance that human knowledge is,
to some extent, contextualised or
local.
Focus on interpretation by
researcher
Systematically arranging and
presenting information to search
for meaning in data collected
Makes less use of mathematical
techniques.
But some form of counting is
almost always involved in
qualitative analysis.
Quantitative
Concepts are assigned numerical
values
Collects a small amount of data
from a large number of people
Employs statistics or other
mathematical operations to
analyse data
Allows generalisation to wider
population
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Three Research Approaches
Mixed Methods (core characteristics)
Do you have a quantitative database? (close-ended)
Do you have a qualitative database? (open-ended)
Do you plan on bringing 2 databases together? (integration)
What design and procedures will you use? (methodology)
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Strengths of Quantitative Research
It can deal with large numbers of cases
It is capable of examining complex patterns of interactions
between variables
It can make possible the verification of the presence of cause
and effect relationships between variables
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Weaknesses of Quantitative
Research
Lack of in-depth information
Ignores individual perspectives and experiences
Limited with topics we know little about
Can be built on pre-existing biases of the researcher
The case of questionnaires:
Language used
Ordering of questions
Forced response formats; what if ‘it depends…’?
Missing data
Sampling issues
Response rates
Lies, lies and damn statistics; torturing your data until it confesses
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Strengths of Qualitative Research
Research done in natural settings
Emphasis on informant interpretations and
meanings
Seek deep understanding of informant’s
world
“Thick Description” (Clifford Geertz)
Humanising research process by raising the
role of the researched
High levels of flexibility in research process
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Weaknesses of Qualitative
Research
Problems of reliability - The difficulty of replicating findings
“Subjectivity” of nature of data collection and analysis
Observations may be selectively reported making it impossible to
gauge the extent to which they are typical
Risk of collecting meaningless and useless information from
participants.
Problems of objectivity vs detachment (particularly in participant
observation but also applies to other methods)
Problems of ethics: Entering the personal world of the participant
Very time consuming
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When to Use a Mixed Methods
Approach
A purely quantitative approach or a purely qualitative approach
is insufficient to fully understand the problem
We need to explore before we administer instruments
We need to explain our statistical results by talking to people
We need to see if our quantitative results and our qualitative
results match
We need to enhance our experiments by talking with people
We need to develop new instruments by gathering qualitative
data
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Which Approach to Use?
Choose your approach and
methods based on your
research problem.
15. The arrangement of conditions for the collection
and analysis of data that is relevant to and will
best address the research purpose and with the
minimum expenditure of effort, money and time
Depends primarily on the nature of your
research questions or research purpose
The blueprint for the implementation of the
research
16. Purposes (Aims
of Science):
To explore
To explain
Exploratory: gain familiarity with a given
phenomenon and achieve new insights
into its processes and dimensions often
for formulating a more precise research
problem or developing hypotheses
Descriptive: portray accurately the
characteristics of a particular individual,
situation or group, with or without some
initial hypothesis on the nature of these
characteristics
Case studies, surveys, developmental
studies, follow-up studies,
documentary analysis, co-relational
studies, comparative studies
17. To predict Experimental (Causal) :
test a hypothesis of a
causal relationship
between variables.
The information, insights
and knowledge gained from
exploratory and descriptive
studies often form the basis
for positing a hypothesis of
causal relationship
In social science research,
it is often done through
quasi-experimental
designs/QED,
characterized by:
absence of a control group
inability to randomize the
selection and assignment of
subjects into study conditions
and
the possibility of collecting
measures only after the but not
before the experimental study;
PSSC, 2000)
18. Deductive mode of research in a quantitative
study (from theory to experience)
Inductive mode of research in a qualitative
study (from experience to theory)
Mixed method (quantitative and qualitative
study combined): a way to come up with
creative alternatives to traditional research
methods
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21. The methods or techniques for data collection
and analysis; these are not to be confused with
research designs.
A given research design can employ not just
one but a combination or a variety of methods
for collecting and analyzing data.
22. Interviews
Documentary reviews (historical research)
Content Analysis
Case study
Focus group discussions (FGD); Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA)
Survey
Observation (Participative/PO or Non-participative/NPO ;
ethnographic research): direct observation, description and
evaluation
Role playing
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1. Narrative Research
Narrative research: begins with the experiences as expressed
in lived and told stories of individuals
Can take the form of biographical studies, life histories or oral
histories.
Collecting stories and “re-storying” them
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Example abstract
In my research, which has involved collecting
women’s accounts of becoming mothers, I am
seeking to understand how women make sense
of events throughout the process of child
bearing, constructing these events into
episodes, and thereby (apparently) maintaining
unity within their lives
Miller, T. (2000). Losing the plot: narrative construction and
longitudinal childbirth research. Qualitative Health Research, 10,
309-323.
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2. Phenomenological research
Describes the meaning for several individuals of their lived
experience of a certain phenomena.
Can center around basic broad questions: “what have you
experienced in terms of the phenomena?” and “what
contexts have influenced your experience of the
phenomena?”
“to determine what an experience means for the persons who
have had the experience and are able to provide a
comprehensive description of it. From the individual
descriptions, general or universal meanings are derived, in
other words, the essences of structures of the experience.”
(Moustakas, 1994)
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Example abstract
Given the intricacies of power and gender in
the academy, what are doctoral advisement
relationships between women advisors and
women advisees really like?
Heinrich, K. T. (1995). Doctoral advisement
relationships between women. Journal of
Higher Education. 66, pp. 447-469.
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3. Grounded theory research
Employed in situations where it is perceived as necessary to go
beyond description and generate theory.
The intent of grounded theory is to generate or discover a
theory that relates to a particular situation. If little is known
about a topic, grounded theories especially useful.
Don’t do a literature review in the beginning
Use of the constant comparative method
Can lead to follow up quantitative research
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Example abstract
The primary purpose of this article is to present
a grounded theory of academic change that is
based on research based by two major research
questions: What are the major sources of
academic change? What are the major
processes through which academic change
occurs?
Conrad, C.F. (1978). A grounded theory of
academic change. Sociology of Education, 51,
101-112.
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4. Ethnographic research
This kind of research focuses on an entire cultural group:
describes their shared patterns of values, behavior, language
and culture…
Field work as method of data collection.
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Example abstract
This article examines how the work and the
talk of stadium employees reinforce certain
meanings of baseball in society, and it
reveals how this work and talk create and
maintain ballpark culture
Trujillo, N. (1992). Interpreting (the work and
talk of) baseball. Western Journal of
Communication, 56, 350-371.
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5. Case study research
This kind of research involves the study of an issue explored
through one or two cases within a setting or context.
A case study is an exploration of a “bounded system” or a
case (or multiple cases) over time through detailed, in-depth
data collection involving multiple sources of information rich in
context.
The context of the case involves situating the case within its
setting. which may be physical, social, historical and/or
economic.
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Example abstract
The purpose of this study was to take a look into education
through the eyes of three teachers who are facing their final year
as professional educators. The overarching goal was to determine
how they have seen children, teachers, administration, policy, and
testing change across the thirty year span of their work as
teachers in Texas’ public schools. Through their comments they
give a considerable amount of insight into the transformation
education has experienced in the last three decades. But
unexpectedly, they reveal as much about our changing society
than they do education itself.
Project submitted in EDCI 690, Summer 2005, Texas A&M University.
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Principles of Research Involving Human Subjects
1. Respect for persons
treating others as autonomous agents having rights and freedom
not a means to an end
free, voluntary and informed consent privacy and confidentiality
2. Beneficence
research should be for the good of the subject either directly or
indirectly through benefiting society
possible benefits are maximised and risks minimised
impasse often develops between social good and individual rights
3. Justice
benefits and harms are to be distributed fairly
vulnerable groups such as cognitively impaired and mentally ill,
their above average rates of institutionalisation and their
dependency on others, have made them a convenient subject pool
for research
who should participate in research poses significant challenges to
policy formation
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Key Ethical Concepts
Protection of participant
Informed consent
Use of deception
Debriefing participants
Right to withdraw
Privacy and confidentiality
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Protection of Participants
1. Ensure minimal risk
must apply the cost-benefit-ratio
risks unlikely to be greater than any encountered in
normal lifestyle
must minimise negative outcomes
2. Strategies
obtain advice from professionals
screen vulnerable participants
monitor unforeseen negative events
debrief participants about research
conduct long-term follow-ups
have counselling or support available
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Informed Consent
Rests on 4 elements
competence, information, understanding of that
information and voluntariness
but… cannot be established in many important areas of
research e.g. critically ill, demented, minors
Social contract
rests on a mutually agreed contract
must reveal all aspects that might influence the decision
to participate
Strategies
inform of the general aims of the project
associated costs and benefits
consent forms
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Use of Deception
Subjects are not given an opportunity to provide their informed consent
to participation before data collection.
Examples include covert observation or subject knows they are participating in
research but not the nature of the research.
Problems
deprives participant of the right to informed consent
but… providing all information is likely to influence behavior and
therefore results
should be avoided if possible
Guidelines governing deception in research:
no more than minimal risk to subjects
rights and welfare of the subjects will not be affected
research cannot practicably be carried out without the
deception
where appropriate, subjects are provided pertinent information
about the research after participation (debriefing)
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Debriefing Participants
Rationale
traditional solution to deception problems
participation considered an educational experience
Strategies
give all information needed and requested
discuss their experience of the research
provide contact details
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Right to Withdraw
Rights
can withdraw consent without any penalty
can request data be destroyed
Controversy
use of captive audiences (e.g. students, military, prisoners,
employees)
use of incentives
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Privacy & Confidentiality
Avoid the use of sensitive questions
Do not record names if possible
Code questionnaires
Warn prior to data collection what identifying
information will be kept
Explain confidentiality procedures
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Research ethics and the Internet
Dilemma based on three facts:
Informed consent is not required for data to be collected from the public
domain (naturalistic observation).
The internet is a public domain
Many online communications (email; discussion groups, chat rooms,
newsgroups etc) cultivates an expectation of privacy
The ease and attractiveness of Internet research renders the medium
vulnerable to misuse.
Guidelines:
When subjects are recruited online, need secure server, secure protection
of information during the study and removal of the records upon study
completion
When using data from online discussion groups, removal of any references
to identity, web site or group, location and time of post is necessary for
confidentiality
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Research with vulnerable populations –
An EXTENSIVE methodological literature exists
on undertaking research with specific
populations and the ethics and practice of
research with these populations. For example:
Indigenous people
Youth
People with disabilities
Migrants
The aged
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“I want to understand the world from
your point of view. I want to
understand the meaning of your
experience, to walk in your shoes,
to feel things as you feel them, to
explain things as you explain them.
Will you become my teacher and
help me understand?”
- James P. Spradley
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References
Center for Teaching, Research and Learning, Research Support Group at the Social
Science Research Lab.,American University. (n.d.) “Qualitative research introduction.”
http://www.american.edu/provost/ctrl/researchsupportgroup.cfm
Creswell, J. (2007). Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing Among Five
Approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Dodge,B. “Qualitative research: The 5 traditions”. Department of Applied Health Science,
Indiana University. http://phhp.ufl.edu/~bdodge/
Epigeum Ltd. (2012). “Research with human participants: Key principles”. Research
Integrity: Biomedical Sciences. Retrieved from
https://www.epigeum.com/downloads/ri_accessible/uk/01_biomed/html/course_files/bi_2_3
0.html
Pini, Barbara. (n.d.) “An introduction to qualitative research”. John Curtin Institute for
Public Policy, Curtin University of Techonology.
Viruru, Radhika. (n.d.) “An introduction to qualitative research”. Department of
Psychological Sciences, Quatar University