3in1-Kao thesis cover abstract_body_ptt (1)

Evaluating productive capacity of tropical seasonal
forests in Cambodia

Kao Dana
2010

Evaluating productive capacity of tropical seasonal
forests in Cambodia

Dissertation
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of
Philosophy (Ph.D.)

Kao Dana
2010

Kyushu University, Japan

Table of Contents
Chapters
1. General Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
1.1. Background…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
1.2. Objectives…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………….
1.3. Past studies……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………………….
1.4. Study site………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……….
1.5. Methods of this thesis…………………………………………………………………………………………………...……………………………………….
2. Assessment of Cambodian forest concession management planning based on
criteria and indicators of Montréal Process: a case study of CFC Company ……………….
2.1. Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
2.2. Material and Methods……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………….
2.2.1. Data sources…………………………………………………………………………………………………………...…………………………………………….
2.2.2. Data analysis……………………………………………………………………...………………………………………………………………..……………….
2.3. Results and Discussion……………………………………………………………...……………………………………………………………...………….
2. 4. Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………………………………………………………….
3. Stand structure of an ecosystem in Northern Cambodia: a case at concession
management level in Preah Vihear Forests…………………………………………………………………………………………….…….
3.1. Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
3.2. Methods…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..….
3.2.1. Forest Inventory………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………………………………………….
3.2.2. Data Processing……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...………………………….
3.2.3. Overview of study area………………………………………………………….……………………………………………………………..…….
3.3. Results and discussion………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
3.3.1 Density and dispersion of trees…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
3.3.2. Stratification………………………………………………………………………………………..………………………………………………………….…….
3.3.3. Species density……………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………………………….
3.4. Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...…………………………………….
4. Structural characteristics of logged evergreen forests in Preah Vihear, Cambodia,
three years after logging at coupe level ………..……………………………………………………………………………………………..….
4.1. Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………………………………………….
4.2. Methods……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………………………………………….
4.2.1. Overview of study site……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..….
4.2.2. Forest Inventory……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………………………….
4.2.3. Data processing……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...………….
4.3. Results………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...……….
4.3.1. Tree family stand structure …………………………………………………………………………………………………...……………….
4.3.2. LGFE tree species structure……………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………….
4.3.3. UNFE tree species structure…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…….
4.3.4. Tree harvested…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
4.3.5. Tree damaged…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………….
4.4. Discussion………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…….
4.5. Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...………….
5. Stand dynamics of tropical seasonal evergreen forest in, Central Cambodia……………..
5.1. Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
5.2. Methods……………………………………………………………………………………………………………...…………………………………………………………….
5.2.1. Study site and Data collection…………………………………………………………………………..………………………………….
5.2.2. Data analysis………………………………………………………………………………….…………………………………………………………………….

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5.3. Results and discussion………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
5.3.1. Stand structure……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...…………….
5.3.2. Diameter increment……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
5.3.3. Recruitment, Mortality and Illegal Cut…….………………………………………………………………………………….
5.3.4. Volume increment………………………………………………………………………………………….……………………………………………….
5.4. Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...………………………………………………….
6. Potential woodfuel supply and demand of two community forestry in Kampong
Chhnang, central Cambodia……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
6.1. Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
6.2. Methodologies……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……….
6.2.1. Study site and history…………………………………………………….…………………………………………………………………………….
6.2.2. Data collection……………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………….
6.2.3. Data processing and analysis…………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………….
6.3. Result………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...….
6.3.1. Species and stand structure……………………………………………..………………………...…………...……………………………….
6.3.2. Supply and demand increments…………………………………..………………………………………...…………...……………….
6.3.3. The comparison between supply and demand………………………………………………...…………………….
6.4. Discussion………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…….
6.4.1. Species and stand structure…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
6.4.2. Biomass supply increment………………………………………………………………………………...…………………………………….
6.4.3 Biomass demand increment…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
6.4.4. Woodfuel supply and demand………………………………………………………………………………….………………………….
6.5. Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...…………….
7. Chapter 7: Evaluating of the Cambodian yield regulation for tropical natural
forest management…..…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…….
7.1. Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
7.2. Methods…………………………………………………………………………………………………………...……………...………………………………………………….
7.2.1 Study site………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…
7.2.2 Data processing………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………………………….
7.3. Results and Discussion…………………...……………………………………………………………………………………………...…………………….
8. General discussion and conclusion………………………………………………………...…………………………………………………………….
8.1. Usefulness and limitation…………………………………………………………………………………...………………..…………………………….
8.2. Recommendation and conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………………………………...….
Summary………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...
Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...….
List of references………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….….
List of tables…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…….
List of figures……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………….
List of acronyms…………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………………….…………….

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This thesis was compiled as partial accomplishment for Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.)
under the coordination and supervision committee composed of Professor, Associate
Professor of the Laboratory of Forest Management

Professor Dr. Shigejiro YOSHIDA
Laboratory of Forest Management
Faculty of Agriculture

…………………………………….……….………

(Professor/Coordinator)

Kyushu University

Professor Dr. Nobuya MIZOUE
Laboratory of Forest Management
Faculty of Agriculture
Kyushu University

…………………………………….……….………

(Academic Supervisor)

Declaration
I would like to sincerely declare that this thesis topic: “Evaluating productive capacity of
tropical seasonal forests in Cambodia” is my original work. It is the results of my own
research and efforts except for the reference cited with the exception of my all academic
professors, tutors and special acknowledgements. This is the first one of its type and has not
been submitted in any other Institution or Publisher.

Fukuoka, 29 July 2010

…………………………………………………..

Dana KAO

Abstract
Evaluating productive capacity of tropical seasonal forests in Cambodia
Dana KAO
Laboratory of Forest Management, Faculty of Agriculture, Kyushu University, Japan
There have been increasing concerns on sustainable forest management (SFM) in tropical
natural
forests,
being
disproportionately important in the
global
carbon
budget
and
biodiversity
conservation.
Maintenance of productive capacity
(Fig. 1) is one of the most
important criteria for SFM, but
very little is known about
productive capacity of tropical
seasonal forests in mainland
Southeast Asia, such as those in
Cambodia. About of 34% of
Cambodia is classified into
production forests, and a broad set
of regulations and guidelines of
forest management practices has
been developed, but there have
been lack of scientific evaluations
of them. This study aims at
Fig. 1 Research Framework
evaluating indicators of productive
capacity of tropical seasonal forests in Cambodia, mainly focusing on stand structure, dynamics
and sustained yield of unlogged and logged evergreen forests (Fig. 1).
First, the 25-year strategic forest concession management plan for a company was
evaluated based on criteria and indicators of Montréal Process, focusing the criteria 2;
“maintenance of the productive capacity of forest ecosystems”. There were 33 sub-indicators of
Criterion 2 of the Montréal, and only 52% (17 sub-indicators) were fulfilled in the concession
management plan. This suggests that indicators related to growing stock for each of forest types
and species group, plantations of native and exotic species and non-timber forest products should
be included in forest concession management planning.
Second, stand structure of natural evergreen forests in Preah Vihear, Northern Cambodia
was evaluated using data from a total of 120 plots, obtained from large-scale inventory by a
concession. The density, volume and basal area (BA) of trees ≥10cm diameter at breast height
(DBH) were 220.3 trees/ha, 151.9 m3/ha and 11.0 m2/ha, respectively, in logged evergreen forest
(LGFE) and 241.9 trees/ha, 185.8 m3/ha and 13.5 m2/ha, respectively, in unlogged evergreen
forest. The density, volume and BA of harvested trees at DBH≥50cm in LGFE were 3.0 trees
(22.4% of total), 22.2 m3 (29.5%), and 1.6 m2 per hectare (27.1%), respectively. The density,
volume and BA of damaged trees at 10-49 cm DBH in LGFE were 12.6%, 25.3% and 40.4%,
respectively.

Third, stand dynamics of seasonal evergreen forest in central Cambodia were estimated
from 20 plots measured in 1998 and 2003. Data for all trees with DBH≥ 10 cm and for
commercial species DBH≥ 10 cm or DBH≥ minimum diameter cutting limit (MDCL) were
evaluated. The mean DBH increment was 0.33 cm and 0.32 cm; mean mortality rates were 2.4%
and 0.5%; mean recruitment rates were 2.5% and 1.4%; and volume increments were 1.09 and
0.86 m3/ha for all and commercial species, respectively. These values are similar to those
reported from tropical rain forests in Amazon and Southeast Asia. Estimated volume increment
0.86 m3/ha/year for commercial trees with DBH≥MDCL was significantly larger than the figure
0.33 m3/ha/year previously used in Cambodian management systems.
Finally, the Cambodian new guideline for estimating annual allowable cut (AAC) was
evaluated using inventory data from a concession company in Northern Cambodia. Under this
guideline, harvesting is allowed only for commercial species that fulfill recovery levels (RLs) of
number of harvestable trees with size more than MDCL in 25 years after logging; 60% and 90%
of RLs are currently adopted for
unlogged and logged forests,
respectively. Two scenarios (S1
and S2) were evaluated under
different RLs from 60 to 100%. S1
is based on the guideline’s
assumption; damaged rate 10.0%,
DBH increment 5.0 mm and
mortality 1.0%, and S2 is based on
my new findings as in the previous
chapters such as damaged rate
12.6%, DBH increment 3.2 mm
and mortality 2.4%. The AACs
tended to decrease with increasing
RLs, and the values from the
current guideline (S1) were always
larger than those from S2. AACs
Fig. 2 Annual allowable cut (AAC) under different recovery
estimated from S1 were 35.5
levels (RLs). “None” indicates the results without accounting
m3/ha/year (at RL 60%) and 39.1
RL.
m3/ha/year (at RL 90%) for logged
and unlogged forests, being much higher than growth potential (21.5 m3/ha/25years = 0.86
m3/ha/year×25 years) (Fig. 2).The results seek for updating information on stand dynamics used
in the current guideline and reconsidering RLs to be fulfilled. In the case of this study sites,
adapting more than 70% of RL is acceptable under the updated data in terms of growth potential.
However, around 10 m3/ha of AAC is highly recommended to achieve the ideal RL of 100% that
ensures sustainability of species diversity as well as growing stock. Interestingly, this 10 m3/ha of
AAC is the same to one proposed by van Gardingen et. al (2006) for primary tropical rain forest
in the Amazon, based on the modeling approach under the cutting cycle of 30 years.
In conclusion, differences in some indicators of productive capacity, such as tree and
stand growth, existed between the previous assumed values and ones found newly in this study,
calling for revision of the Cambodian management planning guidelines. Especially, it should be
noted that the current Cambodia’s allowable cut level is larger than growth potentials. Future
evaluations on long-term dynamics of logged and unlogged sites may be critical for more
accurate evaluation of sustainable productive capacity of tropical seasonal forests.

Chapter 1: General Introduction
1.1. Background
The biodiversity and complexities of natural tropical forests are known as the lives
that depend on each other within ecosystems, species and genetics. Thus, the tropical forests
provide variety of products and services for human over century (FAO, 2001) and play
disproportionally important role in the global carbon cycle (Malhi and Grace, 2000; Clark et
al., 2001) and biodiversity conservation (e.g. Myers et al., 2000). In developing countries,
natural tropical forests provide a lot of benefits for indigenous people to use timber and nontimber products. Natural tropical forests also provide energy, food, medicine, shelter and
livelihood (Menzies, 2002; Carter, 2005; FAO, 1986). Tropical forests are invaluable to
protect fertile soil, to contribute general socio-economic development, to produce rain in the
tropics and to increase overall productions (FAO, 1997). However, forest fragmentation
results because the spatial scales of resource extraction do not match the scales of natural
disturbance that shaped the evolution of the landscape (Hobbs, 2003). Tropical deforestation
was still proceeding at 14.2 million hectares per annum in the 1990s, and only 5.5% of all
forest in developing countries was under formal management plans in the year 2000 (FAO,
2001). This is because until the 1990s many tropical countries had no recent published, or
stated, sustainable forest management (Poore, 1989; Poore and Thang, 2000); and also a
stated yield or stock may not correspond to a government‘s actual forest management plan,
i.e. its true attitude and intentions (Jianbang et al, 2001). Assessment of sustainability
however, is often lacking or incomplete at the time a system is adopted (Dawkins and Philip,
1998; Southgate, 1998).
Natural tropical forests can provide a wide range of essential economic, social and
environmental goods and services for the benefit of current and future generations (Montréal
Process, 2007). However, some developing countries are challenging to manage their forests
at international standard. Criteria and indicators gained increasing international attention as
a tool to monitor, assess and report on forest trends at national and global levels (Rio Earth
Summit). Today, 150 countries are engaged in one or more regional and international
criteria and indicators processes but most of developing countries do not have ability to
implement to gain fully sound sustainable forest management. Especially, to manage forests
to achieve sustainable productive capacity for future generation has not also enough but
Southeast Asian countries cut forests illegally. Therefore, strategic implementation on the

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uses of forest products should then be carefully considered. Strategic management planning
according to available natural potential capacities should also evaluate with caution because
natural stand structure will change after disturbances resulting in extend the rotation lengths.
Maintenance of productive capacity is one of the most important criteria for
sustainable forest management, but very little is known about productive capacity of tropical
seasonal forests in mainland Southeast Asia, such as those in Cambodia. All Cambodia
forest was 59% of the total land and has a change rate of 0.6% per year (Table 1.1; FA,
2004; FA, 2007). About of 34% of Cambodia is classified into production forests, and a
broad set of regulations and guidelines of forest management practices has been developed,
but there have been lack of scientific evaluations of them.

Fig. 1.1. Framework of this study

1.2. Objectives
In respond to, tropical forests have been cut illegally without certification at a
sustainable standard. In respond to emergent needs to improve production forest capacity of
tropical forest ecosystems, the purpose of this study is to support criteria 2 of The Montréal
Process (Fig. 1.1 and Fig. 1.2) and also to provide the strategic implementation of
production forests in a large scale (forest concession level) and small scale (coupe level and

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community forestry level). By identifying the main elements of sustainable forest
management, this study provides a means of assessing the available resource at disturbed
and undisturbed natural tropical forests in Northern Part and Central Part of Cambodia. This
thesis enhances strategy to implement on the method uses to gain sustainable productive
capacity of ecosystem of 7 criteria (Fig. 1.2).
In order to ensure sustainable uses of forests for long-term uses, there are urgent
needs to know the potential capacity and its dynamics of natural tropical forests, which are
very important information for managers make plan and to decide rotation length for next
harvestings. The below objectives would serve a framework within criteria 2 and indicators
of Montréal Process, (2007) presented in Fig. 1.1 and Fig. 1.2. This dissertation aims at (1)
assessing stand dynamics and structure of natural seasonal tropical forests (2) planning
procedures and (3) selecting appropriate methods for estimating annual allowable cut at a
suitable rotation length. This dissertation would be an important report for production forest
management, which it is not available yet in this country and especially in the tropics of
Main Land of Southeast Asia. The results of this study would be successful experimental
indicators before they will be approved to go in to effect for harvesting.

1: Conservation and
biological diversity

4: Conservation and
maintenance of soil
and water resources

2a: MAINTENANCE OF PRODUCTIVE
CAPACITY OF FOREST ECOSYSTEMS

SUSTAINABLE FOREST
MANAGEMENT (SFM)

6: Maintenance and enhancement of longterm multiple socio-economic benefits to
meet the needs of societies

3: Maintenance of forest
ecosystem health and Vitality

5: Maintenance of
forest contribution to
global carbon cycles

7: Legal, policy and institutional framework

Fig. 1.2. Seven criteria of sustainable forest management
a
The criteria that this dissertation was mainly focus on
Source: Criteria and Indicators for the Conservation and SFM (Montréal Process, 2007)

1.3. Past studies
In respond to the needs of products from natural tropical forests, Cambodia and the
Southeast Asia should have forest certification for their sustainable production forest

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management. The Sustainable Forest Criteria for managing natural forests; however, there
have no enough strategic implementation.
Some of examples on the needs of forest product are found as below. Markets and
demand for Cambodian forest products are timber, fuelwood as nontimber forest products
(NTFP) and other NTFPs. Wood is principle source of fuel of the Cambodian population
and fuelwood is the largest use of wood harvested in Cambodia. Fuelwood extracted per
person from the forests was estimated 0.6 m3/year (The WB, UNDP and FAO, 1996).
Above ground biomass supply per person 0.142 Mg/year was estimated based on Top et al
(2006). Cambodia people prefer wood fuel because of cheap price. In Cambodia, Abe et al.
(2007) found that although biomass gasification provided cheaper power than diesel
generators, consistent supply and barriers to growing wood were key constraints. Cambodia
exported industrial round-wood reached 499 thousand m3 in 1992 declining to only 301
thousand m3 for 1994 (FAO, 1997).

Fig. 1.3: General study sites

There are good guidelines for sustainable forest managements such as Forest
Stewardship Council, ITTO Policy Development Series No 15 (ITTO, 2005) and Criteria for
the Conservation and Sustainable Management of Temperate and Boreal Forests (Montréal
Process, 2007). In order to fulfill the Forest Stewardship Council performances, the
dissertation aims, generally, to support some parts of the 10 principles: compliance with law,
tenure and use rights and responsibilities, indigenous peoples‘ rights, community relations

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and workers‘ rights, benefit from the forests, environmental impact, management plan,
monitoring and assessment, maintenance of high conservation value forests and plantations.

Fig. 1.4. Influence of water and temperature regimes on vegetation
Source: FA, DANIDA, German Development Service, (2003)

Fig. 1.5. Distribution of meteorological station in relation to elevation of Cambodia
Source: Forestry Administration, Danida and German Development Service, (2003)

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Fig. 1.2 presented the seven sustainable criteria: enabling conditions for sustainable forest
management, forest resource security, forest ecosystem health and condition, flow of forest
produce, biological diversity, soil and water, and economic, social and culture aspects.
Another reason is that the forest resource is becoming scare since the population growth is
increasing to be faster than natural growth. The most important relative objectives of this
thesis are to support the indicators in criteria of Sustainable Productive Capacity, which
proposed by a professional organization namely as the International Tropical Timber
Organization and Montréal Process Working Group.

1.4. Study site
Forests have always been a defining element of the economy, culture and
environment of Cambodia. Until the middle of the century, forests totaled over 13 million ha,
or over 73% of the country‘s land area in 1973 (The WB UNDP and FAO, 1996). The best
data available indicate that 1.4 million ha of forests were converted and much of the
remaining area has been negative affected from 1973 – 1993 (Fig. 1.10). As accessible
forests have disappeared, the composition of demand for timber and nontimber forest
products has also shifted. The more heavily populated areas of Cambodia, indications of
possible fuelwood shortages are worsening and foreign demand for Cambodia logs and
processed wood exported has grown faster than the regulatory capacity of the Cambodian
government.
The dissertation consists of 3 study sites (Fig. 1.3) locate in Cambodia, main land of
Southeast Asia. Cambodia has the total area 181,035 km2 consisting of 24 provinces and
cities, 185 districts, 1,621 communes, and 14,073 villages (The WB, UNDP and FAO, 1996;
FA 2007; NIS, 2003). Total population was 13,388,910 (General Population Census of
Cambodia 2008) with the population density 75 per km2. The annual population growth rate
was 1.54% (NIS, 2003). Cambodia locates in tropical seasonal rain areas (Fig. 1.4). The
minimum rainfall was 800 mm to maximum >3800 mm in coastal western part (Fig. 1.6)
with the average annual rainfall is 1,604 mm. Humidity is often high through the year with a
mean of 80.3% (FA, DANIDA, German Development Service, 2003). The elevation was
zero to 10 m above sea level in central and southern parts (Fig. 1.5). The length of dry
season was longer than 4 months in northern parts (Fig. 1.7) with temperature 34°C in April,
21°C in January and the annual average of 28°C (Fig. 1.8). Hence the highlands of the

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Cardamom Mountains, sustain forests that are adapted to cool temperature from December
to February at <16.5°C (Fig. 1.9).

Fig. 1.6. Distribution of rainfall regimes in Cambodia in mm

Fig. 1.7. Length of dry season in Cambodia

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This study focuses largely on commercial forest resource evaluation of sustainable
productive capacity of natural tropical forest ecosystems in three different provinces of
Preah Vihear (northern part), Kampong Thom (central part) and Kampong Chhnang (central
part) (Fig. 1.3). Fig. 1.3 shows the location and Table 1.1 present the canopy by year. The
study site in northern part is in Preah Vihear Province, which has the highest forest cover of
up to 94% of the total forest cover. The study sites in central part are in Kampong Thom and
in Kampong Chhnang Province, which have a forest cover of 51% and 40% of the total
forest cover, respectively (Table 1.1). The dominant forest type was evergreen forests in
Kampong Thom, deciduous forest in Kampong Chhnang and Preah Vihear (Table 1.1).
Table 1.1: Forest cover and other land use of Cambodia and province‘s study sites based on LandSat image
shot in the year 2002 and 2006 in hectare
Forest types
Evergreen forest
Semi-FEb
Deciduous forest
Wood SLDc
Wood SFEd
Bamboo
Other forests
Total forests
Non forest
Grand total

Whole Cambodia
Ya-2002
Y-2006
3,720,504
3,668,902
1,455,091
1,362,638
4,833,138
4,692,098
138,939
37,028
150,017
96,387
28,952
35,802
1,065,706
971,341
11,392,347 10,864,186
6,768,323
7,296,456
18,160,670 18,160,674

Kampong Thom
Y-2002
Y-2006
348,971
374,233
26,025
20,120
85,119
78,649
7,396
0
8,483
25,738
16
16
180,047
145,677
656,057
644,432
588,706
600,331
1,244,764 1,244,763

Kampong Chhnang
Y-2002 Y-2006
16,097
16,156
6,219
6,136
150,484 147,175
1,405
845
44
44
0
0
39,675
38,423
213,924 208,779
315,538 320,682
529,462 529,461

Preah Vihear
Y-2002
Y-2006
222,425
254,451
156,800
143,431
927,343
901,295
11,436
914
1,157
556
0
408
17,907
9,626
1,337,068 1,310,680
66,023
92,407
1,403,091 1,403,087

Note: Cambodia forest cover was 12,711,100 ha in 1973 decreased to 11,284,200 ha in 1993 with annual
changes – 0.6% of the total country area 18,153,500 ha (The WB, UNDP and FAO, 1996)
Source: Forest cover in the year 2002 (FA, 2005) and forest cover in the year 2006 (FA, 2007)
a
Year
b
Semi-evergreen forest
c
Wood shrub land dry
d
Wood shrub evergreen forest

In 1993, the total Cambodian forest area of 11.3 million ha is divided among 4.8
million ha of evergreen forest, 4.3 million ha of deciduous forest, 1 million ha of mixed
forest, 0.5 million ha of secondary forest and 0.7 million ha of edaphic forest – refers to
flooded, flooded secondary and mangrove forests (The WB UNDP and FAO, 1996). In 1973,
the total forest area of 12.7 million ha is divided among 6.9 million ha of evergreen forest,
4.8 million ha of deciduous forest and 1.0 million ha of edaphic forest (Table 1.1). The 20year periodic annual change of land resource dynamics was - 0.6% (Table 1.1). In
2002/2003, the total forest area was 11.4 million ha (FA, 2005) but in 2006, the total forest
was 10.9 million ha (FA, 2007; Table 1.1). Therefore, in response to the changed forest
canopy, the Cambodian Government and its predecessors developed a broad set of

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regulations and guidelines to control and safeguard forest management practice with funds
and technical support from the FAO, ADB, World Bank and several bilateral donors since
1996 (RGC, 1996; 1999; 2000; 2002; 2003; DFW, 1998; 1999; 2000a;b; 2001a,b).
Additionally, five handbooks, prepared by the technical assistance team of the World Bank
supported Forest Concession Management and control pilot project, were issued (WB,
2004a;b;c;d;e). By using these publications, objectives for strategic sustainable forest
management were set.
1.5. Methods of this thesis
In order to fulfill this thesis‘s objectives, the forest inventory over large area –
concession level (Kao et al., 2010b), permanent sample plots and small area (community
forestry level) were conducted in 3 different provinces. Data from these measurements were
sorted and processed for tabulations to reach the objectives of each study section. This thesis
included 6 different technical studies out of general introduction and conclusion,
representing Chapter 2 to 7. Each Chapter presented limitation of key concerns, objectives,
methodologies, results and discussions of joint other scientific articles, which had
recommendation to forest sector locally and internationally. In order to gain sustainable
production forests, this study set 2 sub-frameworks one as structure and another as dynamics
by following the sustainable criteria and indicator of capacity of ecosystem (Fig. 1.1). This
classification was because the evaluation of productive capacity would realize on these subframeworks. Variability for evaluations was set together with case studies for sample as
strategic implementation.

Fig. 1.8. Monthly mean temperature in Cambodia in °C

-9-

Note: Tav is the average temperature, Tmin is the minimum temperature and Tmax is the maximum
temperature

In the first sub-framework named as ―Structure‖, evaluation of forest resource
mobilization was presented in Chapter 3, 4 and 6 by forest type over unlogged, logged and
degraded forests, respectively. In the second sub-framework named as ―Dynamics‖,
evaluation of forest resource was done at production forests in order to understand the
mortality, recruitment, illegal-cut and increments (Chapter 5). Chapter 7 scaled sustainable
yield by comparing between natural capacity and growth capacity for evaluating the best
method for harvesting implanting in this country. This Chapter 7 reported about whether
growth could reach expected harvesting intensity or not. Chapter 2 assessed 25-year
strategic plan as a case study to be a sample for decision makers to select the best plan based
on sustainable management criteria. Key recommendation of each findings are also
summarized in each discussion and conclusion of each Chapter 2 – 7 for a policy matrix and
for strategic implementing to gain sound sustainable standard at production forests that are
organized around the strategic issue raise in the dissertation framework (Fig. 1.1).

Fig. 1.9. Distribution of low-temperature regions of Cambodia in °C

To explore the challenge of commercial quality of forest structure changes and SFM
implication, this dissertation summarize what can now be discerned on key criteria and
indicators of productive capacity. Domestic energy and timber are the largest source of
demand for wood in Cambodia; commercial logging has a considerably greater economic
significance (The WB UNDP and FAO, 1996). One of the most crucial considerations for

- 10 -

production forest management and investment is cutting intensity or allowable cut. The
methodologies for estimating annual allowable cut was shown in FA, (2001) and updated
for new annual allowable cut equation in FA, (2004), by level of management system –
long-term plan, medium term plan and annual operational plan. This dissertation also
practice and evaluated the method of annual allowable cut estimation as well. Cambodian
forest harvesting intensity is expressed in terms of the volume of commercial timber to be
removed during each entry to the harvested area or in term of the percentage of the standing
commercial volume to be removed (FA, 2001).
Parts of this thesis have been published in various journals, i.e., Chapter 4 informed
concerning the structural characteristics of forests after impact logging (Kao and Iida, 2006),
Chapter 2 assessed on management plan of a forest concession (Kao et al., 2005a) and
Chapter 5 estimated the stand dynamic at evergreen forest (Kao et al., 2010a). Some parts
have also been published as proceeding in the international and Japanese national
conferences and workshops, i.e., Chapter 7 evaluated the annual allowable cut methods vs.
forest increments in evergreen forest (Kao et al., 2004; Kao et al., 2008a), Chapter 6
assessed the supply and demand of fuelwood at 2 selected community forestry (Kao et al.,
2008b). Additionally, some parts were also published in the book chapters, i.e., Chapter 3
presented a case at concession management level (Kao et al., 2005b).

Fig. 1.10. Generalized distribution of vegetation in Cambodia

This study expected to reach Cambodian important stakeholders such as forest
concessionaires, land concessionaires, community forestry, local people, government, non-

- 11 -

government organizations and forest conservationists, who participate in sustainable forest
management as obvious methodologies in solving mutual conflicts of interests. These results
also expected to reach the end users in some parts of Southeast Asia that have not yet been
evaluated the supply and demands from natural tropical forests. Future important
silviculture treatment of sub-criterion 3 should then be studied (Fig. 1.1). Extrapolations of
these methods to an anticipated acceptable cutting cycle must be interpreted with caution by
forest types. Ongoing restudy of this and other criteria for receiving forest certification are
necessary to provide a strong basis for how to manage the production of the natural tropical
forests (Fig. 1.2).

- 12 -

Chapter 2: Assessment of Cambodian forest concession management planning based
on criteria and indicators of Montréal Process: a case study of CFC Company

Keywords: Cambodia, Sustainable forest management, Criteria and indicators, Scaling,
Forest concession, Strategic management

2.1. Introduction
Forest fragmentation results because the spatial scales of resource extraction do not
match the scales of natural disturbance that shaped the evolution of the landscape (Hobbs,
2003). Tropical deforestation was still proceeding at 14.2 million hectares per annum in the
1990s, and only 5.5% of all forests in developing countries was under formal management
plans in the year 2000 (FAO, 2001). Forest is the essential component for human life in term
of economics and environment. There is a need to extend the findings from visual images
and content analyses to a wider context and different types of media in order to further
examine the role of forestry industry and organizations in the public sphere (Kohsaka and
Flitner, 2004). As signatory nations negotiate the implementation of the Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNCED, 1992), the role of forestry-based options for
mitigating carbon dioxide emissions continues to be debated (e.g. Kyoto Protocol).
Globally agreed-upon elements of criteria for sustainable forest management are extent
of forest resources, biological diversity, forest health and vitality, productive functions of
forests, protective functions of forests, socio-economic benefits and needs, legal and policy
and institutional framework. Considerable international efforts also have focused in recent
years on criteria for assessing forest issues. The United States signed the Santiago
Agreement (Anonymous 1995) defining criteria and indicators for conserving and
sustainably managing. Other efforts in Europe (Helsinki Process), tropical countries
(Tarapoto Proposal), and Africa (Dry Zone Africa Initiative) are helping to develop a
worldwide consensus on these topics. These criteria are now being used to develop the
Global Forest Resource Assessment 2000 by the United Nations, and they served as the
program theme for the 1997 World Forestry Congress in Antalya, Turkey. The Santiago
Agreement identifies seven criteria for assessing sustainable forest management: (1)
Conservation of biological diversity, (2) Maintenance of productive capacity of forest
ecosystems, (3) Maintenance of forest ecosystem health and vitality, (4) Conservation and

- 13 -

maintenance of soil and water resources, (5) Maintenance of forest contribution to global
carbon cycles, (6) Maintenance and enhancement of long-term multiple, socioeconomic
benefits to meet the needs of societies; and (7) Legal, institutional, and economic framework
for forest conservation and sustainable management.
A fundamental sustainable forest management increasingly debated in the past two
decades has been the need for human actions that lead to sustainable development that meets
the needs of the present without comprising the ability of future generations to meet their
needs (WCED, 1987). This debate has broadened to include notions of sustainability as a
normative concept reflecting the persistence over an indefinite future of certain necessary
and desirable characteristics of both ecological and human parts of an ecosystem (modified
from Hodge 1997).
Forest sustainability is a goal of many forestry organizations throughout the world.
Managing forests sustainably involves recognizing interconnections among ecological,
social, and economic systems to preserve options for future generations while meeting the
needs of the present. Sustainability, like many concepts, is difficult to define in concrete
terms. Many organizations are turning to criteria and indicators approach to help describe
forest sustainability. Under this approach, criteria define broad categories of sustainability
and indicators are specific measurements of each category (USDA, 2002). There are a host
of efforts underway using criteria and indicators to describe forest sustainability. Notable
among these is an effort commonly called the Montréal Process. This work is an outgrowth
of the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. In 1995, the United States joined 11
other countries in signing a document establishing a set of 7 criteria and 67 indicators to
track forest sustainability. Definition of the sustainable forest management criteria is a
category of conditions or processes by which sustainable forest management may be
assessed. Each criterion is characterized by a set of 9 to 20 indicators. An indicator is a
qualitative or quantitative measure of an aspect of the criterion that can be observed
periodically (Montréal Process Working Group, 1998).
In fiscal year 2003, the forest reformed program supported the Cambodia missions in
conducting analyses and specific targeted interventions to mitigate conflicts over forest
resources. These conflicts contribute to political destabilization and economic decline as
well as environmental destruction (USAID, 2004). The Forest Administration (FA, 2000)
requires concession companies to set out in their sustainable forest management planning

- 14 -

(SFMPs) clear objectives for sustainable forest management over the concession area for the
duration of the license through policy statement to which management and employees are
committed. The FA can be congratulated for the thorough consideration of this topic in the
planning process. The Planning Manual gives examples for the policy statement and several
management objectives, which serve as guidance to the concessionaires.
The Cambodian forest of 2.1 million hectares (11%) was degraded from 1973 to 1997
(Fig. 2.1). Cambodian tropical forests include the only partly continuous tropical forest in
the world. However, it has annually suffered serious deforestation at 0.6% because of road
building, mining and agricultural improvement expansion (Kim Phat et al, 2002, Kao, 2004).
A large deforestation area has affected the climate change, biological diversity, hydrological
cycle, soil erosion and degradation (CTIA and Kao, 2004, Kim Phat et al, 2004, Top et al,
2004). In the past, logging was an integral part of the ecosystem in Cambodia, affecting
wildlife habitats, forest stand dynamics, soil properties, and watershed hydrology. Therefore,
assessment on the how concessions manage the forest needs to be studied for government
and other concerned organizations to constrain forest harvesting and management. How do
successional pathways differ throughout the region by site landform, and with susceptibility
to disturbance?

Fig. 2.1. Cambodian Land use Map
Source: Cambodian forest statistics to 2002

- 15 -

At the present, Cambodia has 26 forest concessions, who manage the natural forest. By
early 2003, 2 companies had been cancelled, 1 dropped out and 2 missed the deadline; of the
remaining 9 concessions. Twelve forest concessions were required to revise and resubmit
their plans, for further review (Table 2.1). As a result, 6 concessions have been provisionally
approved for advancement to the compartment level (5-year) planning stage: Cambodia
Cherndar Plywood Manufacturing Co Ltd, Everbright CIG Wood Co. Ltd, Colexim
Enterprise, TPP Cambodia Timber Product Pte. Ltd., Timas Resources Ltd. and Samrong
Wood Industry Pte Ltd.
The focus on problem of concession management is the subject of this paper.
Specifically, the purpose of this paper is to evaluate the accomplishment of CFC forest
Concession Company to assess sustainable timber production and adaptability in the context
of the Montréal Process of Criterion 2 and Indicators number 10, 11, 12, 13 and 14 for
sustainable forest management (Montréal Process Working Group 1998).

Table 2.1: Valid forest concession area in Cambodia
No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

8
9

10
11

Name
Cambodia
Cherndar
Plywood
Mfg.Co., Ltd.
Casotim Enterprise
Colexim Enterprise
Everbright CIG Wood Co., Ltd.
King Wood Industry Pte. Co., Ltd.
Mieng Ly Heng Investment Co.,
Ltd.
Pheapimex Fuchang Cambodia Co.,
Ltd.(1)
Ltd.(2)
Ltd.(3)
Samrong Wood Industry Pte., Ltd.
Silveroad Wood Products Ltd.(1)
Silveroad Wood Products Ltd.(2)
Timas Resources Ltd.
TPP Cambodia Timber Product Pte.,
Ltd.
Yourysaco Company

Approved
Date

Area (ha)

Preah Vihear
Kratie
Kampong Thom, Preah Vihear
Kratie, Stung Treng
Krotie, Stung Treng, Modul Kiri
Kampong Thom, Kampong Cham,
Preah Vihear

3/2/1996
9/4/1996
12/2/1996
8/8/1996
15/1/1998

103,300
131,380
147,187
136,376
301,200

27/2/1996

198,500

Krotie, Kampong Thom

15/03/1996

137,475

Stung Treng

15/03/1996

221,250

Stung Treng, Ratanak Kiri
Siem Reap, Otdor Meang Chey
Koh Kong, Pursat
Koh Kong
Kampong Cham, Kratie, Preah
Vihear
Siem Reap, Preah Vihear, Pursat,
Koh Kong
Pursat, Battambang

8/4/1998
22/08/1996
8/3/1998
8/4/1998

350,000
200,050
215,460
100,000

14/4/1996

161,450

3/4/1998
2/3/1998

395,900
214,000
3,874,028

Provinces/Municipality

12
Total
Source: Cambodian forest statistics to 2002 (FA, 2003)

2.2. Materials and Methods
There are 5 indicators of criterion 2, which deals with maintenance of the productive
capacity of forest ecosystems. The focus is on a single Criterion (commonly referred to as

- 16 -

indicators 10 to 14), which addresses the ―maintenance of the productive capacity of forest
ecosystems‖. Data of 25-year strategic sustainable forest concession management level of
CFC Company were selected for tabulation. For a more accurate evaluation of the CFC
Company, the sections, which related to criterion 2, were sorted.

2.2.1 Data sources
Most of the data in CFC Company and in the Montréal process were collected based
on the question ―what is each indicator and why it is important?‖ and ―What does the
indicator show?‖ Standard protocols for each indicator of Criterion 2 are available at
www.fs.fed.us/research. Each of the selected indicators was assessed based on the results of
the publication from the United States department of agriculture, European forest
certification, ITTO report and FAO report and the result of acceptable indicator of Criterion
2 of the Montréal, existing records in the World Wide Web.
In Cambodia, data were collected through a combination of individual and key
informant interviews from the forest concessionaire in Cambodia, focus group (professor,
FA officers, forest manager and the executive staff of CFC company), direct observation,
and measurement of sheet 25-year strategic sustainable forest management plan of CFC
Company, analysis of methodology work, result analyses and literature reviews. There are 8
criteria in 25-year sustainable forest management plan of CFC Company. In criteria number
4, 5 and 6 of the CFC Company was collected because of this relevance to Criterion 2 of
Montréal process 1998 (Table 2.2).

2.2.2 Data analysis
To evaluate the different indicators between CFC Company and Montréal, we first
answered the question ―What does the indicator show?‖ and summarized them, and
interpreted the indicators of Montréal. Then, we matched the each indicator of CFC
Company and Montréal indicators. Indicators with negative or fluctuating trends were
scored "0", while indicators with positive trends were rated "1". To evaluate the value of
sustainable forest management of CFC Company, we finally graded each indicator of CFC
based on the data collection, methodology and its objective.
The analysis of indicators data goes beyond the direct measurement of grade by
scaling the sub-indicators in each indicator as mentioned in Table 2.3. In this study, we

- 17 -

assessed the grade of each sub-indicator at four different ranks ―A‖ is high, ―B‖ is medium,
―C‖ is low and ―D‖ is poor in each sub-indicator or indicator, respectively. To examine the
effect of CFC‘s sub-indicators, we sorted the sub-indicator descriptions of the data
collection, the data analysis and the SFM objectives in each indicator for tabulation. The
sub-indicator, which did not fulfill one of the three activities of accomplishment, was graded
as ―C‖. The sub-indicator, which fulfilled the three activities of the data collection, the data
analysis and the SFM objective, was graded as ―A‖. The sub-indicator, which fulfilled two
of the three activities i.e., fulfilling of the data collection and the data analysis but without
the SFM objective, was graded as ―B‖.

Table 2.2: Summary of criteria and indicators of CFC Company
Criteria
4. Environmental and social
4.2. Evaluation of impacts and
mitigation measures
4.3. Special management areas
4.4. Environmental monitoring
5. Forest function zonation

Indicators
Conclusion of the ESIA document
Table of the principal investigation and mitigation measures appropriate to
forest concessions
Guidelines for special management areas
Monitoring measures tables
Zoning according to the manual :
- Production areas
- Protection areas (>5%)
- Local traditional use areas (>5%)
Tables with non operable area and net operable working forest by major type
Forest function zonation: production areas, sacred forests, protection, special
management areas.

6. Resource and Yield calculation
6.1. Area information

Forest types area tables
Operable forest types
Maps (1:100 000)
Document verification undertaken – sources

6.2. Concession level inventory
Description of the methodology of the inventory
Tables, data available and correct with precision <20m3/ha
Data verified on the field by the DFWb
6.3. Growth and yield information
6.4. Estimated Available Annual
Yield
6.5. Plans
Compartment level

Guidelines will be developed by the DFW in the next months
Calculation available and based on the main group of species (Group I, II and
III) by forest types updated after Cambodia

Maps (1:50 000) showing compartment layout based on a EAAYc production
for a five years period
5 to 6 compartments according to contract between concessionaires and DFW
Tables showing areas by forest types and estimated volumes in each
compartment updated after Cambodia
Arterial road network
Proposal of an arterial road network
Maps (1:50 000)
Schedule of road construction per year
Source: 25-year strategic sustainable forest management plan (CFC, 2003)
Environmental and social impact assessment
b
Department of Forestry and Wildlife
c
Estimate of annual allowable yield

- 18 -

For the forest area estimation activity, we graded this sub-indicator by ―A‖ if there
was information or ―D‖ if there was no information in the CFC‘s sustainable forest
management plan. The CFC‘s area estimation source generally used Geographic
Information System version 3.1 from the Forest Administration Office in Cambodia based
on the imagery in the year 2000. Therefore, it was accurate enough for planning the
sustainable forest management.
Table 2.3: Summary of sustainable forest management sub-indicator data and rating
CFC‘s sub-indicators
Grade Ranking
1 Available a
―C‖
Low
2 Available
―B‖
Medium
3 Available
―A‖
High
Area estimation by GIS
―A‖
High
No information on area estimation ―D‖
Poor
a
Assessment on the available data from CFC Company on sub-indicator (1) Data collection, (2) Data analysis or (3)
Sustainable Forest Management (SFM) objective

2.3. Results and Discussion
Indicator 10: Area of Forest Land and Net Area of Forest Land Available for Timber
Production. This indicator provides information fundamental to calculating the timber
productive capacity of existing forests and shows how much forest is potentially available
for timber production, compared with total forest area. Knowledge of the availability and
capability of forest land to provide desired goods and services is a critical indicator of the
balance of forest ecosystems relative to potential end uses. The comparison between
Montréal‘s and CFC‘s sub-indicators showed that CFC‘s company fulfilled the forest land
available for timber production in indicator 10 about 11 of 13 sub-indicators (Table 2.4).
The community and conservation area estimation were not fulfill. Whereas, the other 11
sub-indicators were realized with the grade A because the area estimation used Geographic
Information System (GIS) in the year 2000, which may provide the accurate area
identification. Therefore, average of annual allowable cut and stock forests would be
accurate because this plan has enough information for forest operation (Table 2.4).
Indicator 11: Total Growing Stock of both Merchantable and Non-merchantable
Tree Species on Forest Land Available for Timber Production. Growing stock is a
fundamental element in determining the productive capacity of the area identified as forest
available for timber production. Knowledge of growing stock of the various species that
make up the forest and how growing stock changes over time is central to considerations of
a sustainable supply of wood for products and the sustainability of the ecosystems that

- 19 -

provide them. The comparison between Montréal‘s and CFC‘s sub-indicators showed that
CFC‘s company fulfilled the total growing stock of both merchantable and nonmerchantable tree species in indicator 11 about 2 of 7 sub-indicators (Table 2.5). Of the 2
sub-indicators, sub-indicator 11.1 was graded as A and sub-indicator 11.2 was graded as B
because only data collection and data analysis were fulfilled and the objective of SFM is not
mentioned. However, the other 5 sub-indicators were realized with the grade D because in
the CFC‘s master plan, there was no information mentioned (Table 2.5).
Table 2.4: Area of forest land and net area of forest land available for timber production
Subindicators
In.10.1d
Subin.10.1.1e
Subin.10.1.2
Subin.10.1.3
Subin.10.1.4
Subin.10.1.5
Subin.10.1.6
Subin.10.1.7
Subin.10.1.8
Subin.10.1.9
In.10.2
Subin.10.2.1
Subin.10.2.2

Title of sub-Indicator 10
Montréal's ref.a
Area of forest land and its changed by forest, class
and year type
Unlogged evergreen forest
Unlogged mix evergreen forest
Unlogged deciduous forest
Logged over evergreen forest
Logged over mix evergreen forest
Logged over deciduous forest
Biodiversity forest
Community forest
Conservation forest
Timber land area, by management class and region
Gross area by forest type and management level
(Strategic, compartment and annual)
Net operable area by forest types and management
level

Total
Source: Indicator number 10 of Montréal Process Working Group 1998
Montréal's reference
b
CFC's reference
c
This assessment was graded based on area estimation by GIS
d
Indicator number 10.1
e
Sub-indicator number 10.1.1

CFC's ref.b

Quality Grade c

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
1

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
D
D
A

1

1

A

1
13

1
11

A
11A, 2D

Table 2.5: Total growing stock of both merchantable and non-merchantable tree species on forest land
available for timber production
Sub
indicators
Subin.11.1
Subin.11.2
Subin.11.3
Subin.11.4
Subin.11.5
Subin.11.6
Subin.11.7

Merchantable volume by forest type and year
Non merchantable volume by forest types and year
Percentage for comparison by forest types and year
Compare the evolution for decision making
Trend of growing stock by year by region
Growing stock volume on timber land by region and
species group
Growing stock volume per hectare on timber land by
region

Montréal's ref.
1
1
1
1
1

CFC's ref.
1
1
0
0
0

Quality Gradea
A
B
D
D
D

1

0

D

1
0
D
Total
7
2
1A,1B, 5D
a
This assessment was graded based on the three activities of (1) Data collection, (2) Data analysis or (3) Sustainable Forest
Management (SFM) objective

- 20 -

Indicator 12: Area and Growing Stock of Plantations of Native and Exotic Species.
This indicator is a measure of the degree to which forest plantations are being established in
response to increasing demand for forest products and competing non-timber uses for forest
land. The provision of forest products from intensively managed plantations can enhance the
potential range and quantity of goods and services available from the remaining forest. The
comparison between Montréal‘s and CFC‘s sub-indicators showed that CFC‘s company did
not fulfill the area and growing stock of plantations of native and exotic species in indicator
11 (Table 2.5). Therefore, the whole indicator in this area should be restudied by CFC
Company (Table 2.6).

Table 2.6: The area and growing stock of plantations of native and exotic species
Subindicators
Subin.12.1
Subin.12.2
Subin.12.3
Subin.12.4

Area of forest planting by forest type and species
Area of tree planting by major geographic region (Specific
period)
Area of timber land plantations
Area of timber planting by major geographic region (Specific
period)

Total
a
This assessment was graded based on area estimation by GIS

Montréal's ref.
1

CFC's ref.
0

Quality
Gradea
D

1
1

0
0

D
D

1
4

0
0

D
4D

Indicator 13: Annual Removal of Wood Products Compared to the Volume
Determined To Be Sustainable. This indicator compares the net growth of growing stock
with wood harvest (removals) of products on timber land. This method is frequently used to
assess whether wood harvesting is reducing the total volume of trees on forest available for
timber production. Growth is the net annual increase in the volume of growing stock
between inventories after accounting for effects of mortality and before accounting for the
effects of harvest. Removals measure the average annual volume of living trees harvested
between inventories. Timber land is the subset of forest land on which some level of
harvesting is potentially allowed. The volume of trees on timber land is considered
sustainable as long as growth (net of mortality) exceeds removals. The comparison between
Montréal‘s and CFC‘s sub-indicators showed that CFC‘s company fulfilled the annual
removal of wood products compared to the volume determined to be sustainable in the
indicator number 13 approximately 4 of 5 sub-indicators (Table 2.7). For the sub-indicator
number 13.4 the grade D (Table 2.7) was evaluated based on data rating in Table 2.3. There
were two A graded in the sub-indicator number 13.1 and 13.5 because the growing stock by

- 21 -

species group class and current removal by forest types were studied with the clear
objectives (Table 2.7). Sub-indicators number 13.2 and 13.3 was graded as B because there
are only two activities were studied (Table 2.7).
Indicator 14: Annual Removal of Non-timber Forest Products Compared to the level
determined to be sustainable. This indicator shows the removal of non-timber forest
products (NTFPs). As demand for these products grows, it becomes more important to
monitor the products‘ flow and the effect of their removal on the viability of current and
future forest ecosystems. Information is not currently available to compare the growth and
removals of NTFPs to evaluate sustainable levels. The comparison between Montréal‘s and
CFC‘s sub-indicators showed that CFC‘s company did not fulfilled the annual removal of
non-timber forest products (NTFPs) in indicator 14 (Table 2.8). Therefore, the whole
indicator in this area should be restudied by CFC Company (Table 2.8).

Table 2.7: Annual removal of wood products compared to the volume determined to be sustainable
Subindicators
Subin.13.1

Montréal's ref.

CFC's
ref.

Quality Gradea

Historic growth and removals of growing stock by group
class, dbh and species
Net growth and removals of each forest type by year
Potential Growth by forest type
Current growth by forest type
Current removals by forest type

1
1
A
Subin.13.2
1
1
B
Subin.13.3
1
1
B
Subin.13.4
1
0
D
Subin.13.5
1
1
A
Total
5
4
2A, 2B, 1D
a

Table 2.9 summaries the comparison between Montréal‘s and CFC‘s 5 indicators in
the whole Criterion 2. We found that CFC‘s plan accomplished only 3 indicators 85%, 29%
and 80% in Table 2.4, Table 2.5 and Table 2.6, respectively. Indicator 12 and 13 were
remaining blank (Table 2.9). There were 14 sub-indicator graded as A, 3 sub-indicator were
graded as B and 16 sub-indicators were graded as D (Table 2.9). There were 33 subindicators of Criterion 2 in Montréal and only 52% equivalents amount of 17 sub-indicators
were fulfilled (Table 2.9).
The Montréal Process provides little guidance for defining annul allowable cut
although the information that is available largely addresses sustainable forest management.
The various technical notes on the subject refer to biodiversity generically. They stress the
need to assess using quantitative and qualitative information of the trends on the status of
maintenance of the productive capacity of forest ecosystems. Little guidance is available for

- 22 -

which scales need to be considered other than general direction to deal with national,
regional, and local concerns. No guidance is provided for how to scale annual allowable cut
information upward to broader spatial scales.

Table 2.8: Annual removal of non-timber forest products (NTFPs)
Subindicators
Subin.14.1
Subin.14.2
Subin.14.3

Montréal's ref.
Popular use of medicinal plants, food and forage
species
Floral and horticultural species, resins and oils,
Materials used for arts and crafts, and game animals
and fur bearers.
Annual periodic harvest of NTFPs

CFC's ref.

Quality Gradea

1
1

0
0

D
D

1
0
D
Subin.14.4
1
0
D
Total
4
0
4D
a

Table 2.9: Summary of Criterion 2 of maintenance of the productive capacity of forest ecosystems
Indicator
number
10

11
12
13

Montréal‘s

CFC's

CFC‘s
(%)

Quality Grade

13

11

85

11 A, 2D

7

2

29

1A,1B, 5D

4

0

0

4D

5

4

80

2A, 2B, 1D

4
33

0
17

0
5２

4D
14A, 3B, 16D

Title of indicators
Area of forest land and net area of forest land available for
timber production
Total growing stock of both merchantable and nonmerchantable tree species on forest land available for timber
production
The area and growing stock of plantations of native and
exotic species
Annual removal of wood products compared to the volume
determined to be sustainable
Annual Removal of Non-timber Forest Products (NTFPs)

14
Total Fulfillments
Source: Criterion number 2 of Montréal Process Working Group 1998

However, this study found that only 52% of Criterion number 2 was accomplished.
We found that 48% of management indicators were not in the plan yet. Whenever the CFC‘s
master plan will be approved, this estimation forecasted that indicator number 11, 12 and 14
will be endangered to the forest area of CFC Company. We suggested that growing stock of
plantation and NTFPs have made the forest management into terrible condition because the
forest area in CFC Company was mainly studied on the timber production.

2.4. Conclusion
The analysis of trade data goes beyond direct measurement of Montréal Criterion
number 2 and each sub-indicator of indicator number 10, 11, 12, 13 and 14. It is difficult to
assess whether a 25-year sustainable forest management plan will fully support sustainable
forest management if measures such as the conserved forest, annual growth rate and NTFPs

- 23 -

are not provided. Many of the current analytical approaches are designed to reflect, forest
area and annual allowable cut on aggregate levels. 5 Indicators attempt to address the links
among land management, the flow of growing stock, and plantation. In that sense it reflects
the current scientific thinking of forest growth and harvesting rate. This study recommends
to not approving this company to proceed to cut forest because the growth rate of this area is
not studied yet.
Sustainability is a human value, not a fixed, independent state of social, economic,
and ecological affairs. As such it is not an ‗absolute‘ because it is dependent on social
values and involves multiple dimensions and scales, including those of time and space. At
the concession scale, a concession‘s concept of sustainability may be influenced by broad
scale perspectives such as general trends in concessionaire‘s environmental conditions,
concession social or institutional issues or the balance with other national priorities. At the
concession scale, the criteria and indicators will focus on eco-regional conditions, provincial
economies and program effectiveness. At the concession scale, conceptions of sustainability
will vary from stakeholder to stakeholder and will vary with unique forest conditions, the
importance of forest in the traditions and economies of the area, and the nature and type of
land ownership. While at each scale and for each property owner or manager the land
management objectives may vary, collectively their individual actions contribute to
sustainability. For instance, the indicator number 14, which is mainly about the NTFPs,
concessionaires may not need to use this information in their plan because of economic
conditions. Regardless of the scale at which they are applied, however, Montréal criteria and
indicator frameworks must be flexible and adaptable over time. As society‘s values around
sustainability change over time, criteria and indicators frameworks will need periodic
revision to ensure that they continue to accurately and efficiently report on progress towards
concession sustainable forest management for timber production. For the indicator number
12, which is mainly about the growing stock of plantation of native and exotic species,
concessionaires may need this in the plan when the commercial forest area is not enough for
the current production.
Montréal criteria and indicators programs represent complementary tools that can be
used to show progress towards sustainability and there is no information regard to
monitoring. Each tool helps answer a set of questions unique to that scale and provides
feedback for different kinds of purposes and decisions at other scales. Monitoring on illegal

- 24 -

logging and reduce impact logging should be mentioned in the standard criteria and
indicator in order for the manager to conduct and follow. Managing for sustainability
requires thinking across all indicators of criterion 2, but monitoring and assessing
sustainability must be based on the recognition that different questions and different
methods are appropriate for different indicator. There is clear philosophical overlap and
interdependence between the concession and Montréal indicators sustainability monitoring
initiatives although the purposes, tools, and approaches are by intent different and therefore
not easily translated one to the other.
The CFC Company is not alone in facing the challenge of sustainable renewable
resource management. Problems such as illegal logging by arm group, population growth,
conflicting resource uses and subdivision of open spaces confront most of the other
concessions that are employing criteria and indicators. Using criteria and indicators to assess
and monitor forest conditions can aid in addressing these problems, but further action is
necessary to effectively influence policies and decisions to achieve sustainable management
of renewable resources. Cambodia must also integrate the information derived from the use
of criteria and indicators into the development and implementation of the national forest
programs.
The policy statement should include an overall company goal and the willingness to:
maintain long term productivity, maintain environmental and social-economic quality,
sustain economic returns, work in compliance with laws and internationally recognized
criteria for sustainable forest management, conduct regular monitoring, match downstream
processing and forest production and formulate detailed management objectives derived
from the policy statement. Defining management objectives is a key element of strategic
planning.
The results of this study on assessment of forest concession in Cambodia are
applicable for tropical forest management. The assessment was more accurate using a forest
concession planning and the Montréal. Because the sustainable forest management remedies
are based on the specific knowledge of criteria and indicators, our results may be useful for
the future establishment and management of sustainable yields in tropical forests.

- 25 -

Chapter 3: Stand structure of an ecosystem in Northern Cambodia: a case at
concession management level in Preah Vihear Forests (25-year management level)

Keywords: Stand structure, disturbance, stratification, evergreen forest

3.1. Introduction
Forest fragmentation results because the spatial scales of resource extraction do not
match the scales of natural disturbance that shaped the evolution of the landscape (Hobbs,
2003). Tropical deforestation was still proceeding at 14.2 million hectares per annum in the
1990s, and only 5.5% of all forest in developing countries was under formal management
plans in the year 2000 (FAO, 2001). This is because until the 1990s many tropical countries
had no recent published, or stated, sustainable forest management (Poore, 1989; Poore and
Thang, 2000); and also a stated yield or stock may not correspond to a government‘s actual
forest management plan, i.e. its true attitude and intentions (Jianbang et al, 2001).
Assessment of sustainability however, is often lacking or incomplete at the time a system is
adopted (Dawkins and Philip, 1998; Southgate, 1998). A government may also be unhappy
if its original stated forest management was drastically modified during passage into
legislation (Kim Phat et al, 2000).
Forest is the essential component for human life in term of economics and
environment. There is a need to extend the findings from visual images and content analyses
to a wider context and different types of media in order to further examine the role of
forestry industry and organizations in the public sphere (Kohsaka and Flitner, 2004). As
signatory nations negotiate the implementation of the Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNCED, 1992), the role of forestry-based options for mitigating carbon dioxide
emissions continues to be debated (e.g. Kyoto Protocol). In Europe for example, the role of
forests should be no longer be only to sustain high wood production, but also to maintain the
vitality and health of forests, biodiversity and protective functions of ecosystems, as well as
to produce non-wood resources and to support socioeconomic development at multiple
scales (Liaison Unit in Lisbon, 1998). Being a concern on the international market place,
biodiversity maintenance has become an issue, especially in countries and regions, which
are dependent on exporting wood products (Elliott and Schlaepfer, 2001). This development
has been preceded by a long list of policy documents (United Nations, 1992; Work Program

- 26 -

on the Conservation, 1997; Liaison Unit Vienna, 2000). In the 1970s, when the fulfillment
of the basic needs of the rural poor became an ingredient of rural development, the critical
role of forests in the life of forest-dependent rural communities, which had been excluded
from forest use, was reestablished (Barraclough and Ghimire, 1995; Poffenberger and
McGean, 1996). The United Nations Conference on Human Environment (1972) brought
environmental issues to the forefront, and since this time environmental movements have
been strengthening in the developed as well as the developing world.
Cambodian forest 2.1 million hectares 11% was degraded within the period 19731997 (Kao et al, 2004). The Cambodian Tropical Forests contain the partly continuous
tropical forest in the world; however, it has annually suffered serious deforestation 0.6%
because of road-building, mining and agricultural and illegal logging-raising expansion
(Kao, 2004; KimPhat, 2000 and 2002). The large area deforestation has resulted in effects
on climate change, biological diversity, hydrological cycle, soil erosion and degradation
(Kim Phat, 2004; Top et al, 2004; CTIA and Kao, 2004). After deforestation, regeneration
of vegetation is common and the resulting landscape often consists of patches of
successional forests and agricultural lands.
Stand structure is an important variable affecting habitat of wildlife and plays a key
role for forest zonation. For tree species, recruitment of new individuals and death of old
ones may be less important to the population dynamics than are the architectural
consequences of sprouting on the persistence of already established individuals (Midglei,
1996). Moreover, an understanding of stand structure at the landscape level should take into
account variability in sprouting patterns that may affect medium- and long-term forest
structure (Rabinovitch-Vin, 1983; Pigott and Pigott, 1993; Gracia and Retana, 1996). In
Mediterranean conditions, stand patterns are usually related to the variability in site quality
conditions (Espelta et al., 1999). A plant community is not understood if it is known merely
under what condition it is found. It is more important first to discover how it is built up,
what is its structure. The science of vegetation is the study of the morphology of plant
communities (Richards et al, 1996).
Forest act in UK coined the definition stand structure: the distribution of trees in a
stand, which can be described by species, vertical or horizontal spatial patterns, size of trees
or tree parts, age, or a combination of these. The behavior of stand structure during and after
disturbance is the basic information for preparing the forest planning and help to efficient

- 27 -

sustainable forest planning. Stand structure is important for forest zonation, which leads to
guide the forest manager to scale the forest compartment of operation. Without stand
structure, the forest owner may be useless expense from main road construction after year‘s
indecision (Kao, 2003). Predicting stand dynamics and future yields in mixed-species
complex structured stands cannot be easily accomplished with traditional field experiments
(Coates et al, 2003). An indispensable way to explore relationships between management
and future stand structure and function will be the use of stand structure information. This
study could provide more reliable basic results on long-term monitoring stand structure of
Cambodian forests in order for the government to make decision on forest concession
agreement. This study aims to explore the stand structure of evergreen forests of Preah
Vihear after disturbance.

3.2. Methods
3.2.1. Forest Inventory

Fig. 3.1. Primary Sampling Unite allocation
Note: This map is edited by FA-GIS office 2000

- 28 -

With financial support of a timber company, an executive agency of World Bank and
a counterpart of the Forest Administration of Cambodia, a two-year forest inventory project
was initiated in 2000 and implemented enumeration from April 2001 to September 2001.
This inventory project covered 96,714 ha of forests in Cambodia‘s three largest districts;
Tbaeng Mean Cheay, Chhaep and Choam Khsant, Preah Vihear Province (Fig. 3.1). The
inventory map was interpreted using satellite maps of 1996/97 and 2000 from GIS office,
Forest Administration (FA) (Fig. 3.1 and Fig. 3.2). Forest types within the forest were
divided into four forest types; Evergreen Forest (FE), Mixed Forest (FM), and Deciduous
Forests (FD) Conserved Evergreen Forest (CSFE).

Fig. 3.2. Preah Vihear Forest land cover map

Under this inventory project, the procedure of the Forest Management Planning
Manual was adapted. In each forest type, 100 Primary Sampling Unites (PSU) were set on
the map with the detail UTM grid coordinates. PSU in FE had the average area of 301ha
was measured (Table 3.4). Twenty PSUs were randomly selected from the 100 PSUs on the
map (Fig. 3.1). Sample plots of 20m x 60m were set in the PSUs. Therefore, 160 sample
plots of this forest type in total were selected from 20 PSUs. In each sample plot, four sub

- 29 -

plots with the different size were set 20 x 60m, 20 x 20m, 10 x 10m and 5 x 5m as shown in
Table 3.1.
Table 3.1: Tree measuring procedure in each plot
Diameter Classes
Plot dimensions (m)
Above 30 cm. DBH
60 x 20
Above 10-30 cm. DBH
20 x 20
5 to 10 cm. (count only)
10 x 10
Below 5 cm. (count only) 5 x 5
Note: DBH is the diameter at 1.3 m

Plot Size (ha)
0.12
0.04
0.01
0.0025

At the forest, the location of the PSU was found by means of GPS. Then, we moved
to the sub plot and evaluated the trees in the plot; species stem form (good, medium and
bad), diameter of breast height (dbh) and height. The criterion of dbh to be measured was
different in each sub plot as shown in Table 3.1. All condition of forest type survey and
inventory data together with general comments were recorded by the team leaders (Fig. 3.1).

3.2.2. Data Processing
To calculate the stand structure; we first calculated the stand volume using formula
available in Forest Administration (2001). The dipterocarp species in evergreen forest is V =
0.121+5.422*(DBH) ^2*H/100,000, Non-dipterocarp species in evergreen forest is V =
0.226+4.750*(DBH) ^2*H/100,000. We then sorted the average volume in the dbh class
above dbh 10 cm by royalty class I, II, III, LUX and OTHER.
n

VN  {[0.121  5.422 * (DBHi ) ^2 * H i /100,000] /P ft /PSU ft }
i 1
m

VD  {[0.226  4.750 * (DBH j ) ^2 * H j /100,000] /P ft /PSU ft }
j 1

where: VN is volume of nondipterocarp species, VD is volume of dipterocarp species,
Pft is subplot area by forest type and PSUft is primary sampling unite area by forest type

3.2.3. Overview of study area
Preah Vihear Province is situated in the northern part of Cambodia, and has a total
area of 14,013.61 km2 including land areas of 13,788 km2. This province has 7 districts,
Choam Khsant, Chhaeb, Chey Saen, Rovieng, Sankom Thmei, Kulean and Tbaeng Mean
Chey. According to the meteorology data, the average of rainfall within the area mostly falls

- 30 -

within the range of >1,500 mm to <2,000 mm, around the province of Preah Vihear. In
summary, yearly maximum temperature is 32.11ºC, yearly average temperature is 28.15ºC
and yearly minimum temperature is 24.20ºC. This province has a 1998 population of
119,261 people of whom 59,333 were males. Nearly 80% of the populations were engaged
in farming and forestry for their livelihood. There were 21,007 households of whom 18.7%
are females headed household. The population density is 8.6 people per km2 and total urban
area is 18.6% (NIS, 1998). The study side forest areas (both in the core and buffer zones)
have 2,635 families under the administrative control of Choam Khsant, Chhaeb and Tbaeng
Mean Chey Districts. These 2,635 households come from 16 villages within 06 communes.
The mean annual temperature in the area is 24.7C, lower than the national mean annual
temperature of 26.7C. The highest temperature was 41C while the lowest was 19.4C.
Humidity varies from 72.3% in January to 86.9% in October, with an annual average of
80.3%.
The study site is situated within the province of Preah Vihear, covering an area of
approximately 103,058 hectares (Table 3.3) of different forest formations (FA/GIS office,
2000). Geographically, it is located within latitude 104º 58‘ E to 105º 2‘E and longitude 13º
48‘ N to 14º 9‘ N. The area is presently accessible from Phnom Penh using National Route
No. 6 thence following National Road No. 127 and 128 to reach the Preah Vihear area. It is
about 5 hours ride by car to reach Preah Vihear Forest.
The boundary is defined mostly by using natural features like roads, bridges, rivers,
streams, or villages… etc. Northern boundary: Starting from point A (UTM: 500000.08,
1566224.68), at the junction of route No 69 and 6931 near Chaep village, along route No. 69
to Chuon village continuing to point B (UTM: 528584.51, 1549094.81) on route No. 69.
Eastern boundary: From point B (UTM: 528584.51, 1549094.81 along route No. 69 to point
C (UTM: 528367.79, 1546586.9), to point D (UTM: 540109.76, 1537536.97) where is the
connection of route No. 69 and route No. 695, and then continue from route 695 to point E
(UTM: 530340.97, 1526447.14) at the connection of route No. 6931 and route No. 695 near
Molu Prey village. Southern boundary: from point E (UTM: 530340.97, 1526447.14) near
Molu Prey village, along route No 6931 to point F (UTM: 519063.03, 1527527.73) and
continue through Bos Thom village to point G (UTM: 502559.43, 1532069.96) near Pou
village, Prame commune. Western boundary: from point G (UTM: 502559.43, 1532069.96)
near Pou village along route No 6931 passing through O Kak village and Sre Phong village

- 31 -

to point H (UTM: 498057.29, 1545002.04) at Khnat village and continue along this route
No. 6931 to meet the starting point of point A (UTM: 500000.08, 1566224.68) where is the
junction of route No 69 and 6931 near Chaeh village (Kao, 1999).
During field inventory work in the projected area, an ancient temple known as
―Daun Chrom‖ with the size of 100m x 100m has been discovered in the upper northern part
of the concession at UTM: 505054, 1559394. Savannah-type brush land with scattered trees
occurs mainly in the intermediate regions in the northern parts of the studied site. Along the
Stoeng Sen boundary of the studied site are scattered pockets of bamboo and cultivated
crops. Cultivated crops are also extensive in the vicinities around Choam Khsan district and
Pau Commune.
The forest vegetation over the area is composed of three major forest types. These
are the evergreen forests, mixed evergreen forests and dry deciduous forests. These are
further stratified into 4 sub-types (FE, FM, FD and CSFE) as interpreted by the GIS Unit of
FA based on 1996/97 satellite imageries, and is further updated based on 1999/2000 satellite
imageries, field assessment and forest inventory during the current analysis processes. After
comparing the ground assessment with the satellite imageries 2000, forest typing and forest
zonation, the identified forest area is 96,714 hectares (Table 3.2 and Fig. 3.2). Based on the
1999/2000 satellite imageries interpreted by FA, and actual ground survey and field
verification, the vegetation cover in the concession is classified to include the above
mentioned forest typing according to sub types as shown in Table 3.3.

Table 3.2: Change of forest types in Preah Vihear Forest 1996-2000
Forest type
1996 area 2000 area Difference Change Annual Change
(ha)
(ha)
(ha)
(%)
(%)
Evergreen forest 34,250
30,128
-4,122
-12.0
-3.0
Mixed forests
32,795
19,968
-12,827
-39.0
-9.8
Deciduous forest 25,617
41,083
15,466
60.0
15.1
Conserved forest 6,517
5,535
-982
-15.0
-3.8
Total
99,179
96,714
-2,465
-2.0
-0.6
Percentage
96.24%
93.84%
Note: This data is based on Landsat TM imagery 2000 interpreted by Forestry Administration-GIS

Between the period 1995 and early 1998, extensive depletion of merchantable timber
in the Preah Vihear Forest area occurred. Portion of the original operable areas has been
illegally logged by armed group and village-based illegal logging activities. It is widely
known that the Thai-owned company conspired by former Khmer Rouge returnees and local

- 32 -

gunmen had illegally logged hundred thousands cubic meter of timber in the area and sent to
Thailand between that period (Kao, 2003).
Table 3.3: Forest land use classification in Preah Vihear Forest
Studied site area in hectares
Total
Forest types
Map code Total area Conserved Unlogged (%)
Evergreen forest
Evergreen dense
A
0
0
0
0
Evergreen disturbed
B
30749
4481
26707
30
Evergreen mosaic
C
5062
1054
3421
5
Sub-total
35811
5535
30128
35
Mixed evergreen forest
0
0
0
0
Mixed evergreen dense
D
846
0
846
1
Mixed evergreen disturbed
E
18059
0
18102
18
Mixed evergreen mosaic
F
1146
126
1020
1
Sub-total
20051
126
19968
19
Deciduous forest
Deciduous
G
40850
710
41083
40
Sub-total
40850
710
41083
40
Total production area
96712
6371
91179
94
Non production forest
Sub-total
3039
11
3028
3
Non forest or other land uses
Sub-total
3307
336
2971
3
Total non-production area
6346
347
5999
6
Grand total of study side
103058
6718
97178
100
Note: This data is based on Landsat TM imagery 2000 interpreted by FA-GIS office 2000

As shown in the originally approved "Master Plan" and the "Annual Logging
operational Plan, the first compartment has seven coupes that is coupe: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7
(CCP, 1996). The concessionaire, at the time of making the previous approved plan,
supposed to operate this first compartment's coupes sequentially by numbered. Not so long
before and after the Master Plan was approved, this forest area was conquered and illegally
logged by the Thai owned timber company. These illegal logs were sent to Thailand. Thai
company built a direct road from within the Preah Vihear Forest to Thai border.
The terrain consists of mostly flat alluvial plain from the Tonle Sap basin in the
south gently rising to moderately rolling terrain to the north. The three major forest types
(evergreen, mixed and deciduous) occur on five major soil types. The evergreen forests
show a distinctive preference for Acid Lithosols and Red-Yellow Podsols. The mixed
forests prefer Acid Lithosols and Plinthite Podzols while the deciduous forests are found
almost equally in Acid Lithosols, Plinthite Podsols and Grey hydromorphics. Acid Lithosols
type – most of the project area is covered by this soil family particularly in the northwestern
part of the area. It covers about 45,611 hectares equal to 44.3%. The parent material at depth

- 33 -

is decomposed rock and acidic (pH 4.5 – 6.5). The project area covers a very small area of
Alluvial soil type, less than 200 hectares (0.2%.) at the southern tip of the studied site near
the main road entering the studied site. Grey Hydromorphic soil over the area covers about
12,856 hectares equal to 12.5% of the total project area. The Plinthite Podzols soil covers
about 28,989 hectares equal to 28%. Red-Yellow Podzols soil covers about 15,406 hectares
equal to 15% (Kao, 2003).

Table 3.4: Sampling parameters for evergreen forest of dbh above 10 cm
Forest types/ Sampling parameters
FE
Total area (ha)
30,128
Total number of PSU:
20
Total area of PSU (ha)
6,026
Average area of PSU (ha)
301
Total number of sampling units:
160
Dimension for dbh 10-30 cm (m)
20x20
Dimension for dbh above 30 cm (m)
20x60
Sub plot area (ha)
0.12
Plot area per PSU (ha)
0.96
Total sampled area (ha)
19.20
Number of plots per sampled PSU:
8
(+ or -)10% sampling error @ 95% confident level: 1.96

3.3. Results and discussion
3.3.1 Density and dispersion of trees
Data used in this study were taken from 160 sample plots in evergreen forest. The
density of the trees in evergreen forests varies within wide limits and depends on many
factors. For all trees with dbh greater than 10 cm, the average density of tree, volume and
basal area was 364.3 trees/ha, 286.1m3/ha and 21.4m2/ha (Table 3.5) within the area of
30,128 ha, respectively (Table 3.4). In mature forest with few gaps on more or less level,
free-draining low land sites (center of the studied site in Fig. 3.3) the density of trees,
volume and basal area per hectare with a dbh greater than or equal to 10-59 cm is 344
trees/ha, 172.8m3/ha and 12.6m2/ha (10 cm is an arbitrary limit roughly corresponding to
trees about 15-30 m high) (Table 3.8 and inventory plots observation).

- 34 -

220
200
180
2

Basal area (m /ha)

160

Volume (m3/ha)
140

Stem (Trees/ha)

120
100
80
60
40
20
0
I

II

III

LUX

OTHER

Royalty class

Fig. 3.3. Density of stem, volume and basal area of dbh above 10 cm by royalty class

The factors controlling tree density in rain forests are complex and not well
understood. A part from the effects of natural and anthropogenic disturbances, they certainly
include drainage, illegal logging and other soil conditions, as is well shown in the over view
of the studied site section 3.2. In the studied site area, the density of trees is often strikingly
greater on the flat area 200- 800 m above sea level (GIS/FA office, 2000 and field
observation using GPS, 2001). In hilly country the density of trees is often markedly greater
on ridge tops than on the slops, as (Wyatt-smith, 1960) found in Malaya and (Ashton, 1964)
in Brunei.
Like density, the diameter-class distribution of the trees is very variable, some
mature trees having relatively large number of 10-29 cm dbh or more and other
comparatively few; however, volume and basal area density of dbh above 30 cm are higher
and other comparatively few (Table 3.8). In tropical rain forest country, some mature trees
of dbh 40-60 cm is very variable and other comparatively few (Richards et al, 1996). It also
shows that there is little correlation between the numbers of trees or very large dbh and the
total number above some fairly small arbitrary lower dbh limit such as above 10 cm
(Richards et al, 1996). Since many large evergreen forest trees (over about 30 cm dbh), are
buttressed and most of the smaller trees unbuttressed (forest inventory observation), the area

- 35 -

of the forest floor effectively occupied by this study is considerably larger than the basal
area calculated from their dbh (Table 3.8).

Table 3.5: Density of stem, volume and basal area in dbh class above 10 cm
Class
Stem
Volume Basal area Stem Volume Basal area
(Trees/ha) (m3/ha) (m2/ha)
(%)
(%)
(%)
I
79.7
90.3
7.1
22
32
33
II
103.2
95.4
7.0
28
33
33
III
51.2
28.7
2.1
14
10
10
LUX
8.2
6.3
0.5
2
2
2
OTHER 121.9
65.4
4.7
33
23
22
Total
364.3
286.1
21.4
100
100
100
Note: LUX is luxury tree class and OTHER is tree without scientific name

3.3.2. Stratification
Some writer gives the impressions that the strata of the evergreen forest are as well
defined and as easy to recognize as ―coppice-with-standard‖, (Richards et al, 1996) but the
presence of the three story of difference trees is not evident on casual observation, for the
composition of all stories is very complex and few of the trees present any stinking
peculiarities, while smaller tree of a higher story always occur in a lower story and between
the different sorties (Brown and Whitmore, 1992). In Table 3.6, the first or dominant story
forms a complete canopy of dbh above 60 cm (13.2 trees/ha) with the average of 30-40 m of
high; under this there is another story of large trees, which also form a complete canopy of
dbh 30-59 cm (52.1 trees/ha) with the average of 15-30 m of high (Table 3.8). Still lower
there is a story of small scattered trees of dbh 10-29 cm (299.3 trees/ha) with average of 515 m of high (Table 3.5 and Table 3.6). In this study, the result of our analysis is similar to
Brown (1992).
3.3.3. Species density
It consists of three stories of trees at the studied site at 30 m and upwards, 15-30 m
and 3-15 m, respectively (Inventory observation). So that it is somewhat lower and less
luxuriant (Table 3.5, Table 3.7, Table 3.8 and Fig. 3.6) than the best developed ―true‖
evergreen forest. Apart from the lower height of all the stories, the highest tree is even more
discontinuous (Richards et al, 1996). Structurally the original evergreen forest have a dense
closed canopy with the emergent layer attaining a height up to 40 meters and the trees
reaching a diameter of 200 cm In Fig. 3.4 and Table 3.6, many of these emergent trees are
buttressed (Inventory data). In Table 3.7, dipterocarps species are commonly encountered

- 36 -

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