Effective classroom strategies

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Cognition, Learning and Assessment
“EFFECTIVE CLASSROOM STRATEGIES”
By
Laraib
Roll Number: 15061701-005
Master of Philosophy
Semester 1st
Supervised By
Mam Saira
Department of Education
University of Gujrat
Session 2015-2017

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CONTENTS
Sr No. Topics: EFFECTIVE CLASSROOM STRATEGIES Page No.
1. COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY: MODELS OF LEARNING 1
1.1 WHAT IS COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY? 1
1.1.1 OVERVIEW OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 1-2
1.2 WHAT IS LEARNING? 2
1.2.1 HOW DOES LEANING OCCUR? 2
1.2.3 WHAT IS LEARNING MODEL? 2
1.2.3.1 TPYES OF LEARNING MODELS 2
1.2.3.2 LEARNING MODEL BASED ON THEORY 2-4
1.2.3.3 SOCIAL INTERACTION MODEL 4-5
1.2.3.4 INFORMATION PROCESSING MODEL 5
1.2.3.5 CONTEXTUAL LEARNING MODEL 5-7
1.3 OTHER MODELS OF LEANING 8
1.3.1 QUANTUM LEARNING MODEL 8
1.3.2 ACTIVE LEARNING MODEL 8
1.3.3 PAIKEM LEARNING MODEL 8
1.3.4 LEARNING MODEL LESSON STUDY 8
1.3.5 ACTION LEARNING MODEL 8
2. DISCOVERY, GUIDED DISCOVERY AND EXPOSITORY
METHODS OF TEACHING
9
2.1 DISCOVERY METHOD OF TEACHING: 9
2.2 GUIDED DISCOVERY METHOD OF TEACHING: 9
2.2.1 WHEN TO USE THE GUIDED DISCOVERY METHOD? 9
2.2.2 PHASES IN IMPLEMENTING GUIDED DISCOVERY LESSONS 10
2.3 EXPOSITORY OR DEDUCTIVE METHOD OF TEACHING: 10
3. BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION: SOCIAL AND ACADEMIC
LEARNING
10
3.1 BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION: 11
3.1.1 HISTORY OF BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION: 11
3.1.2 ETHICS OF BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION 11
3.2 BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION AND SOCIAL LEARNING 12

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3.3 BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION AND ACADEMIC
LEARNING
12-13
3.4 FIVE WAYS OF BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION 13
3.5 BEHAVIORAL PRINCIPLES IN THE CLASSROOM 13
4. REINFORCEMENT 14
4.1 INTRODUCTION OF REINFORCEMENT 14
4.1.1 HISTORY OF REINFORCEMENT 14
4.1.2 MEANING OF REINFORCEMENT 14
4.1.3 CONCEPT OF REINFORCEMENT 14-15
4.1.4 NATURE OF REINFORCEMENT 15
4.2 TYPES OF REINFORCEMENT 15
4.2.1 POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT 15-16
4.2.2 NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT 16
4.2.3 PUNISHMENT REINFORCEMENT 17
4.2.4 EXTINCTION 17
5. MODELING 17
5.1 DEFINITION OF MODELING 18
5.1.1 ACCORDING TO SOCIAL THEORIST ALBERT BANDURA 18
5.1.2 HOW IS MODELING DONE BY THE TEACHER? 18
5.2 TYPES OF MODELING 18
5.3 MULTIPLE LEARNING MODES IN MODELING 19
6. SHAPING TECHNIQUES 19
6.1 WHAT IS SHAPING? 19
6.2 WHEN IS SHAPING USED? 20
6.3 HOW TO USE SHAPING? 20-21
7. REFERENCES 22-24

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EFFECTIVE CLASSROOM STRATEGIES
1. Cognitive psychology: models of learning
2. Discovery, guided discovery and expository methods of teaching
3. Behavior modification: social and academic learning
4. Reinforcement
5. Modeling
6. Shaping techniques
1. COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY: MODELS OF LEARNING
1.1 WHAT IS COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY?
Cognitive psychology is the branch of psychology that focuses on the way people
process information. It looks at how we process information we receive and how the
treatment of this information leads to our responses. In other words, cognitive
psychology is interested in what is happening within our minds that links stimulus
(input) and response (output).
Cognitive psychologists study internal processes that include perception, attention,
language, memory and thinking. They ask questions like:
 How do we receive information about the outside world?
 How do we store and process information?
 How do we solve problems?
 How does a breakdown in our perceptions cause errors in our thinking?
 How do errors in our thinking lead to emotional distress and negative
behaviors?
1.1.1 OVERVIEW OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
The term 'cognitive psychology' was first used by Ulric Neisser in 1967. Since then,
many interventions have emerged from cognitive study that has benefited the field of

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psychology. Cognitive psychology also touches on many other disciplines. Because
of this, it is frequently studied by people in a number of different fields including
medicine, education and business.
Cognitive psychology is goal-oriented and problem-focused from the beginning.
Imagine you are entering treatment with a cognitive psychologist. One of the first
things you will be asked to do is identify your problems and formulate specific goals
for yourself. Then you will be helped to organize your problems in a way that will
increase the chances of meeting your goals.
Suppose that as you are preparing for your presentation at work tomorrow, you fear
you will fail. Because of this you are using distractions around you as a way to avoid
working on the presentation. This prevents you from preparing properly, which
actually causes you to fail. You believe that you failed because you are worthless. A
cognitive psychologist would help you examine and then rationalize the situation in
order to understand the most valid reason for your failure. Then they would teach you
how to make changes that will help you succeed.
All forms of cognitive psychology have these four characteristics:
1. A collaborative relationship between client and therapist.
2. The belief that psychological distress is largely the result of a disturbance in
cognitive processes.
3. A focus on changing cognition to produce desired changes in emotions and/or
behavior.
4. A time-limited, educational treatment that focuses on specific problems.
1.2 WHAT IS LEARNING?
Learning is often defined as a relatively lasting change in behavior that is the result of
experience. Learning became a major focus of study in psychology during the early
part of the twentieth century as behaviorism rose to become a major school of
thought. Today, learning remains an important concept in numerous areas of
psychology, including cognitive, educational, social and developmental psychology.

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1.2.1 HOW DOES LEARNING OCCUR?
Learning can happen in a wide variety of ways. To explain how and when learning
occurs, a number of different psychological theories have been proposed.
1.2.3 WHAT IS LEARNING MODEL?
 Learning model is defined as a systematic procedure in organizing learning
experiences to achieve learning objectives. Can also mean an approach that is
used in learning activities.
 Learning models are patterns of interactions and activities to ensure any
learning you create is effective. Using a learning model when developing
rapid e-learning allows you to accelerate your writing and development by
giving you a repeatable structure to follow. It can also accelerate the learner’s
experience as it gives them a repeated structure.
 Learning models are good for inexperienced designers to follow and provide a
consistent approach if you have a number of designers on one large project
1.2.3 TYPES OF LEARNING MODEL
1.2.3.1 LEARNING MODEL BASED ON THEORY
1.2.3.2 SOCIAL INTERACTION MODEL
o Social Interaction Model stresses the relationship of the individual to the other
persons and to the society. Instructional methods used by teachers to facilitate
group work
o Student cantered teaching approaches that allows students to interact with
each other in a structured on task manner.Normally in social interaction
learning face-to-face interaction. Begins with an introduction lead by the
instructor
o The learners than break into groups
o The instructor continues to monitor and assess teams and their work
o The teams conclude with their results/findings

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STEPS TO IMPLEMENTING SOCIAL INTERACTION
a) Introduction of concept by facilitator
b) Students group into teams.
c) Students negotiate, compromise, and explain concepts to another while
facilitator monitors.
d) Students assess their work.
e) Students present findings.
ADVANTAGES OF SOCIAL INTERACTION MODEL OF LEARNING
• Student centred model that engages a higher level of thinking
• Promotes meaningful learning
• Promotes leadership, team work and problem solving skills
• More motivated when working together
• Cooperative setting
DISADVANTAGES SOCIAL INTERACTION MODEL OF LEARNING
• The process of social interaction is time consuming
• It’s difficult to reach all content objectives
• Group dynamics may also inhibit student learning
• Some students may not participate
• Differently abled students may find it difficult to participate
• Instructors must consistently monitor group behaviour
1.2.3.3 INFORMATION PROCESSING MODEL
INFORMATION PROCESSING
 The human mind’s activity of taking in, storing, and using information.
 The whole system is guided by control processes that determine how and
when information will flow through the system.
 Early information processing views of memory used the computer as a model.

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 Like the computer, the human mind takes in information, performs operations
on it to change its form and content, stores the information, retrieves it when
needed, and generates responses to it.
THE MEMORY PROCESS AND ITS STEP PROCESS….
1. Encoding: The processing of information into the memory system.
2. Storage: The retention of encoded material over time.
3. Retrieval: The process of getting the information out of memory storage.
4. Personal Model
5. Behavior Modification Model (Behavioral)
1.2.3.4 CONTEXTUAL LEARNING MODEL
CONTEXTUAL TEACHING AND LEARNING MODEL
a) Teaching is the process or activities educating or instructing, from the teacher
to students.
b) “Learning is not something done to students, but something that students
themselves do.”
If you have ever carefully planned a lesson, only to find that your students just
didn’t “get it,” consider that your lesson should be designed not just to impart
knowledge but also to lead students through the process of their own learning
(Ambrose 2010:3).
DEFINITION CONTEXTUAL TEACHING AND LEARNING
Contextual teaching and learning called contextual approach because the concept of
learning that help teacher’s content associate between the lesson and the real world
situation with the students and encourage students to make the relationship between
knowledge held by the implementations in their lives as members of the community.

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PRINCIPLES OF CONTEXTUAL TEACHING AND LEARNING
1) CONSTRUCTIVISM
o Flow of learning that require students to prepare and build a new meaning on
the experience based on specific knowledge
o The characteristic of constructivism learning is active students, they
involve in learning process depend on their ability, knowledge and style
of learning.
2) INQUIRY
a. Observasi ( Observation )
b. Bertanya ( Questioning )
c. Mengajukan dugaan ( Hiphotesis )
d. Pengumpulan Data ( Data gathering )
e. Penyimpulan ( Conclussion )
3) QUESTIONING
i. Questions teachers used to lead and evaluate how students think. Meanwhile,
the question exist student is a curiosity
ii. Teacher motivates and guides students.
iii. Find out students` knowledge.
iv. Paying students` attention.
v. Asked that the activities carried out by both teachers and by students.
4) LEARNING COMMUNITY
Study groups or community group that serves as a vehicle of communication for
sharing experiences and ideas. One of example of learning community in English
subject is making team work, they try to understand English text, share and
make conclusion. Cooperative skill is one of learning community purpose.

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5) MODELING
Activities demonstrate an act that students can learn or imitate, or do something in
accordance with the model provided. The teacher is not only a model but
students, native speaker, doctor, police
6) REFLECTION
See the return or respond to an accident, activities and experiences that aims to
identify things that are already known and it has not been made known to be an
improvement in the action. So, the students felt getting new knowledge from what
they learned.
7) AUTHENTIC ASSESSMENT
Alternative assessment procedures that require students to really show the real
capabilities.
ADVANTAGES OF CONTEXTUAL TEACHING AND LEARNING
Contextual Teaching and Learning approach making that hold meaning. Learning
becomes more meaningful and real. This means that students are required to grasp the
relationship between learning experiences in school to real life. It is very important,
because the material was found to correlate with real life, not just for the students the
material that will serve functionally, but the material he had learned to be embedded
firmly in the memory of students, So that not be easily forgotten.
DISADVANTAGE OF CONTEXTUAL TEACHING AND LEARNING
The Disadvantages of Contextual Teaching and Learning approach was teacher must
look at each child in the classroom expressly to understand that child’s emotional
state, learning style, English speaking skills, cultural and racial context, and financial
circumstance. Elaine B Johnson Ph.D.2002, 13)

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1.3 OTHER MODELS OF LEANING
1.3.1 Quantum Learning Model
Quantum model of teaching is the learning model used in the presentation of the
study design that are strung together into a package that is multisensory, multi
intelligence, and is compatible with the brain, including specific instructions to
create an effective learning environment, curriculum design, deliver content and
facilitate the learning process
1.3.2 Active Learning Model
Active learning is a term that underlies some of the learning model that focuses on
the responsibility of the student learning process.
1.3.3 PAIKEM Learning Model
According Tarmizi (2009) learning is an acronym for Active, Innovative,
Creative, Effective and Fun.
1.3.4 Learning Model LessonStudy
Director General for Quality Improvement of Teachers and Education Personnel
suggested that Lesson Study is a professional educator development through
collective assessment and continuous learning.
1.3.5 Action Learning Model
The Action Learning Model was first introduced by Professor Reginald Revans in
1980, who was a noted physicist and the first known Industrial Management
Professor. Reginald Revans also described the Revans Formula as L= P+Q,
where: L is learning, P is programming and Q is questioning (closed, open,
objective, and relative)

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2. DISCOVERY, GUIDED DISCOVERY AND EXPOSITORY METHODS OF
TEACHING
2.1 DISCOVERY METHOD OF TEACHING:
 A method in which thoughts are synthesized to perceive something that the
individual has not known before. The learner gets directly involved in
learning.
 learning is a result of the learners own internalized, insights, reflection and
experiences
 Inductive: an exploratory method of logic where one arrives at a fact,
principle, truth or generalization. : Formulating conclusion, a definition, a
rule, a principle or a formula based on knowledge of examples and details
studying: observing, comparing many instances or cases in several instances
to discover the common element and form generalization.
2.2 GUIDED DISCOVERY METHOD OF TEACHING:
 A renowned cognitive psychologist at Harvard University named Jerome
Bruner promoted the approach on the basis that students are more likely to
remember concepts and principles when they discover them on their own.
 Guided Discovery is an inquiry-based learning technique in which students
investigate, question, and respond to issues in a constructive manner.
 Students solve problems using their own experiences and prior knowledge to
building knowledge in a very natural way.
2.2.1 WHEN TO USE THE GUIDED DISCOVERY METHOD?
 Guided discovery problems may be used at the start of a new concept or
content area, thus allowing students to build upon their prior knowledge of the
subject before a new reading or lecture.
 They may also be used at the end of a unit to allow students to apply what
they have learned in a real-world situation.

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2.2.2 PHASES IN IMPLEMENTING GUIDED DISCOVERY LESSONS
Strategies and Models for Teachers by Paul Eggen and Don Kauchak
 First, teachers identify topics, create objectives, and provide examples and
materials.
 Next, during an open-ended phase, students are asked to “make observations
and comparisons of the examples” (p.137).
 Then, in the Convergent Phase, “teachers ask more specific questions
designed to guide the student to an understanding of the concept” (p.137).
 Finally, students are guided to define the concept and apply their
understanding in a new context.
2.3 EXPOSITORY OR DEDUCTIVE METHOD OF TEACHING:
Expository or Deductive Method: a telling method where facts, concepts, principles
and generalizations, are stated presented, defined, interpreted by the teacher and
followed by the application of testing of three concepts, principles, and
generalizations in new examples generated by the student.
Deductive Teaching: process of teaching that starts with a rule or general statement
that is applied to specific cases/examples
3. BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION: SOCIAL AND ACADEMIC
LEARNING
3.1 BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION:
Systematic application of learning principles to change people’s actions and feelings.
It involves a series of well-defined steps to change behavior. The success of each step
is carefully evaluated to find the best solution for a given situation. Examples
Modeling, classical conditioning, operant conditioning.

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3.1.2 HISTORY OF BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION:
Behavior Modification is a therapeutic technique based on the work of B.F. Skinner, a
famous psychologist who is known as the "Father of Behaviorism." Skinner
developed a theory of operant conditioning, which states that all behavior is governed
by reinforcing and punishing stimuli. Behavior modification uses a scheduled
approach that rewards desired behavior and "punishes" undesirable behavior. This
technique continues to be used in therapy and is used in many psychological
settings.The first use of the term behavior modification appears to have been by
Edward Thorndike in 1911 .His article "Provisional Laws of Acquired Behavior or
Learning" makes frequent use of the term "modifying behavior. " Through early
research in the 1940s and the 1950s, the term was used by Joseph Wolpe's research
group. The experimental tradition in clinical psychology used it to refer to psycho-
therapeutic techniques derived from empirical research. It has since come to refer
mainly to techniques for increasing adaptive behavior through reinforcement and
decreasing maladaptive behavior through extinction or punishment (with emphasis on
the former).
3.1.3 ETHICS OF BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION
i. Application of behaviour principles in mental health facilities, prisons, and
schools prompted strong negative reactions and even the banning of funds.
Common Misconceptions
ii. Isn't it unethical to modify another individual's behaviour?
iii. Isn't behaviour modification worse than some other methods because it is
planned rather than unplanned - intentional rather than unintentional?
iv. Wouldn't successful programme of behaviour modification cause people to
lose their individuality?
v. What behaviour modifiers can do?
vi. What behaviour modifiers want to do?
vii. Can’t behaviour modification be misused?

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viii. Aren't the techniques of behaviour modification more objectionable than the
techniques associated with other methods?
3.2 BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION AND SOCIAL LEARNING
o Social learning which informal learning of the individual plays a vital role
towards Behavior Modification.
o Norms and Values of the society are directions towards desired Behavior/
Behavior Modification.
o Every individual is born in a social group in a family.
o As a member of a family, he has to learn certain language, ways of dealing
with siblings, parents and other members of the group.
o As he grows up, he has to acquire certain modes of behavior and social
attitudes as approved by the society. All these amounts to Behavior
Modification.
3.3 BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION AND ACADEMIC LEARNING
 Leaning is a very comprehensive term. Learning does not mean only the
acquisition of knowledge or skills.It includes acquiring of attitudes, values,
likes, dislikes and many other habits.
 A number of psychologists have defined leaning as change or modification of
behavior.
 Thus leaning is the process by which an organism, as a result of its interaction
with a situation, acquires a new mode of behavior, which tends to persist and
affect the general behavioral pattern of the organism to some degree.
 Munn says “ Learning is more or less permanent, incremental modification of
behavior which results from activity, special training or observation.
 Thorpe defines learning as that “process which manifests itself by adoptive
changes in individual’s behavior as a result of experience.
 All learning is modification of behavior, but all modification of behavior is
not learning. We may conclude by saying that ‘ learning is limited to those

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changes in behavior which are a result of maintaining or temporary
physiological or psychological states of the organism.
 Modification of behavior may take place in desirable direction or in the
undesirable direction. For example children learn good habits as well as bad
habits. Teachers and parents must always encourage children to learn
desirable behavior patterns.
 Learning stands for relatively permanent change or modification of behavior.
The temporary changes in behavior do not constitute learning.
3.4 FIVE WAYS OF BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION
1. Identify the Root Cause of the Problem
2. Focus on a Proper Reinforcer
3. Apply the Reinforcer Early
4. Be Consistent in Your Application
5. Adjust the Reinforcer to Adapt to New Goals and Behavior
3.5 BEHAVIORAL PRINCIPLES IN THE CLASSROOM
 Guidelines on the use of Rewards - Deci
 Give Rewards to Inform
 Rewards Should Not Be Used to Manipulate
 Reward for Academic Performance
 Reward Incentives Should Be Inconspicuous
 Bribes Weaken Intrinsic Motivation

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4. REINFORCEMENT
4.1 INTRODUCTION OF REINFORCEMENT
Education aims at full development of an individual’s potentialities, abilities,
skills as well attitudes, values and personality. But due to lack of motivation
and other factors the expected level of objectives are not achieved. In such a
situation, reinforcement principles may prove to be useful.
4.1.1 HISTORY OF REINFORCEMENT
 The term reinforcement was introduced by Pavlov in 1903.
 The concept of reinforcement means getting the work completed by giving
some incentives or rewards to the certain person.
4.1.2 MEANING OF REINFORCEMENT
1. The act or process of reinforcing.
2. Something that reinforces.
3. The occurrence or experimental introduction of an unconditioned
stimulus along with a conditioned stimulus.
4. The strengthening of a conditioned response by such means.
5. An event, a circumstance, or a condition that increases the likelihood that
a given response will recur in a situation like that in which the reinforcing
condition originally occurred.
4.1.3 CONCEPT OF REINFORCEMENT
Reinforcement is an event that increases behavior OR Reinforcement refers to
any environmental event that increases the probability of a response. The
environmental events act as a stimulus or reinforce which is presented to a
particular person before or after she makes a response. The responses produced
in connection with a particular stimulus show the change in behavior of the

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student nurse so as to prepare her for the practice of nursing in the clinical
field.
In the reinforcement procedure, a stimulus is either added or withdrawn from
the environment. The resultant effect is evident in the future behavior.
4.1.4 NATURE OF REINFORCEMENT
Unlike primary reinforcement (as reinforcing the value of food for hunger),
most reinforcement used in education is secondary or learned. Money,
affection, approval and attention are appropriate examples. Another major
secondary reinforce within the educator’s control is confirmation or knowledge
of results. Knowing that you have behaved correctlyor adequately is highly
reinforcing. Self instructional programmed material is sequenced by such small
steps as to virtually ensure correct responses and subsequent reinforcement the
learner derives from knowledge of his correctness.
4.2 TYPES OF REINFORCEMENT
1. Positive Reinforcement
2. Negative Reinforcement
3. Punishment Reinforcement
4. Extinction
4.2.1 POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT
Give a positive response when an individual shows positive and required behavior in
a class. Think of it as adding something in order to increase a response. The most
common types of positive reinforcement or praise and rewards.In operant
conditioning, positive reinforcement involves the addition of a reinforcing stimulus
following a behavior that makes it more likely that the behavior will occur again in
the future. When a favorable outcome, event, or reward occurs after an action, that
particular response or behavior will be strengthened. One of the easiest ways to

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remember positive reinforcement is to think of it as something being added. By
thinking of it in these terms, you may find it easier to identify real-world examples of
positive reinforcement. For example: 1. immediately praising an employee for
coming early for job. This will increase probability of outstanding behavior occurring
again. Reward is a positive reinforcement. 2. After you execute a turn during a skiing
lesson, your instructor shouts out, "Great job!" 3. At work, you exceed this month's
sales quota so your boss gives you a bonus. 4. For your psychology class, you watch a
video about the human brain and write a paper about what you learned. Your
instructor gives you 20 extra credit points for your work.
4.2.2 NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT
Negative reinforcement involves the removal of a negative condition in order to
strengthen a behavior. It is a more effective tool for motivating employee behavior
and students. Negative reinforcement encourages students and employees to perform
better so they can have an unpleasant condition removed from their work
environment.In negative reinforcement, a response or behavior is strengthened by
stopping, removing or avoiding a negative outcome or aversive stimulus. Aversive
stimuli tend to involve some type of discomfort, either physical or psychological.
Behaviors are negatively reinforced when they allow you to escape from aversive
stimuli that are already present or allow you to completely avoid the aversive stimuli
before they happen. One of the best ways to remember negative reinforcement is to
think of it as something being subtracted from the situation. When you look at it in
this way, it may be easier to identify examples of negative reinforcement in the real-
world. For Example: Driving in heavy traffic is a negative condition for most of us.
You leave home earlier than usual one morning, and don't run into heavy traffic. You
leave home earlier again the next morning and again you avoid heavy traffic. Your
behavior of leaving home earlier is strengthened by the consequence of the avoidance
of heavy traffic.

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4.2.3 PUNISHMENT REINFORCEMENT:
Punishment refers to adding something aversive in order to decrease a behavior.
Punishment involves either presenting or taking away a stimulus in order to weaken a
behavior. For example: Disciplining (e.g. spanking) Suspending an employee for
breaking the organizational rules. Punishment can be equalized by positive
reinforcement from alternative source.
4.2.4 EXTINCTION REINFORCEMENT:
Process of eliminating any type of reinforcement causing any undesirable behavior.
When you remove something in order to decrease a behavior, this is called extinction.
You are taking something away so that a response is decreased. For Example: If an
employee no longer receives praise and admiration for his good work, he may feel
that his behavior is generating no fruitful consequence. Extinction may
unintentionally lower desirable behavior.
5 MODELING
5.1 DEFINITION OF MODELING
Follow the Leader: The behavior of others increases the chances that we will do the
same thing. Clapping, looking out the window, copying the styles and verbal
expressions of our peers. Modeling is an instructional strategy in which the teacher
demonstrates a new concept or approach to learning and students learn by observing.
An engaging teaching strategy, able to reach the learning needs of most students. As a
technique, teacher modeling involves breaking down a task into specific tasks, and
demonstrating each task multiple times in front of the class and the students observe
and repeat this activity.

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5.1.1 ACCORDING TO SOCIAL THEORIST ALBERT BANDURA
“Most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing
others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions
this coded information serves as a guide for action.”
5.1.2 HOW IS MODELING DONE BY THE TEACHER?
The teacher provides a structure to guide students by:
o Describing the skill or strategy
o Clearly describing features of the strategy or steps in performing the skill
Breaking the skill into learnable parts
o Describing/modeling using a variety of techniques.
o Engaging students in learning through showing enthusiasm, keeping a steady
pace, asking good questions, and checking for student understanding
5.2 TYPES OF MODELING
o Disposition modelling: In disposition modeling, teachers and students convey
personal values or ways of thinking.
o Task and performance modelling: Task modeling occurs when the teacher
demonstrates a task students will be expected to do on their own.
o Modeling as a scaffolding technique: When using modeling as a scaffolding
technique, teachers must consider students’ position in the learning process.
o Meta-cognitive modelling: Meta-cognitive modeling demonstrates how to
think in lessons that focus on interpreting information and data, analyzing
statements, and making conclusions about what has been learned.
o Student-centered modelling: In student-centered modeling, teachers engage
students who have mastered specific concepts or learning outcomes in the task
of modeling for their peers.

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5.3 MULTIPLE LEARNING MODES IN MODELING
The teacher modeling strategy engages students who are :
1. Visual learners- see the teacher perform the task in front of the class.
2. Auditory learners- hear the teacher describe each step.
3. Tactile learners- write notes about the process the teacher uses
4. Kinesthetic learners- benefit by seeing the steps to perform the lesson,
allowing them to repeat the steps in their
6 SHAPING TECHNIQUES
6.1 WHAT IS SHAPING?
Shaping is a procedure used to establish a behavior that is not presently performed by
an individual. It was introduced by B.F. Skinner. Shaping assists in "discrimination",
which is the ability to tell the difference between stimuli that are and are not
reinforced, and in "generalization", which is the application of a response learned in
one situation to a different but similar situation. Examples: Language development,
getting a rat to press a lever, Animal training and rehabilitation (O’Neill & Gardner,
1983)
There are four aspects of behavior that are particularly subject to shaping:
1. Topography -- spatial configuration or form of a particular response or the specific
movement involved. Examples: printing a word and writing a word, the movements
of a variety of sports, speech, etc.
2. Amount -- the frequency of a behavior (the number of times it occurs in a given
time) or its duration (the length of time that a response lasts)
3. Latency -- reaction time
4. Intensity -- the force of a response

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6.1.1 WHEN IS SHAPING USED?
 To develop new topographies of a behavior
 To develop new dimensions of a behavior
 To restore old behaviors those are not occurring
 Accidentally to develop problem behaviors
6.1.2 HOW TO USE SHAPING?
1. Define the target behavior
Final behavior should be stated in way that all the relevant characteristic of behavior
(topography, amount, latency and intensity)
2. Is shaping the preferred procedure?
Use instructions/modeling/prompting if possible
3. Identify the starting behavior
 The person must already exhibit the behavior
 Choose a behavior you can build on to achieve the target behavior
4. Choose the shaping steps
 Each step is a closer approximation to the target behavior
 Steps are not too fast
 No specific guidelines for identifying the ideal step size.
5. Choose the reinforcer
 Must function as a reinforcer for the individual
 Consider the effects of satiation during shaping (use conditioned reinforcers)

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6.Reinforce each successive approximation
 Reinforce first approximation until it occurs a number of times
 Stop reinforcing first approximation and reinforce next approximation until it
occurs’ a number of times
 Continue until the target behavior occurs
7. Move at the proper pace
 Do not move to soon
 Proceed in sufficiently small steps
 Return to earlier approximation if you lose a behavior because you moving
too fast.
 It is also important not to progress too slowly

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REFERENCES
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Nurses In Medical College Associated Group Of Hospital At Ajmer,
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psychology-textbook/learning-7/cognitive-approaches-to-learning-
48/bandura-and-observational-learning-203-12738/
 Borthick, A. F. & Jones, D. R. (2000). "The Motivation for Collaborative
Discovery Learning Online and its Application in an Information Systems
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 Bicknell-Holmes, T. & Hoffman, P.S. (2000). "Elicit, Engage, Experience,
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 "Discovery Learning (Bruner)." Retrieved 20 May 2009 from Learning-
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http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-scientific-

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fundamentalist/201001/common-misconceptions-about-science-vi-negative-
reinforcement
 Mather, N., & Goldstein, S. (2001). Learning Disabilities and Challenging
Behaviors: A Guide to Intervention and Classroom Management. Baltimore:
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Psychology. Retrieved from http://www.simplypsychology.org/operant-
conditioning.html
 Ms.MunjraKachroo.‘Reinforcement as a teaching method in nursing
education’.nursing journal of India, volume 85, 1994, pp:207-209.
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Doctoral Thesis, Columbia University, 1975.
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 Positive reinforcement: A proactive intervention in the classroom. The
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types-and-theories-of-learning/652
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 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9GLu4D7dwTc
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uEvWlYzmtdo
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Thinking/dp/0132179334
 http://psychology.about.com/od/lindex/g/learning.htm
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alber
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textbook/learning-7/cognitive-approaches-to-learning-48/bandura-and-
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3woqmOJiD
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