Reptile capture

REPTILES, AMPHIBIANS, ETC.
F-1 Alligators Allan R. Woodward and Dennis N. David
F-7 Crayfish James F. Fowler, Wendell Lorio, and Greg Lutz
F-9 Frogs and Toads Paul E. Moler
F-13 Salamanders James L. Byford
F-15 Snakes, Nonpoisonous James L. Byford
F-21 Rattlesnakes Walter E. Howard
F-27 Turtles James F. Fowler and Jimmy L. Avery

Allan R. Woodward
Alligator Research Biologist
Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish
ALLIGATORS
Commission
Gainesville, Florida 32601

Dennis N. David
Alligator Management Section Leader
Commission

Fig. 1. American alligator,
Alligator mississippiensis

Damage Prevention and Toxicants Identification
Control Methods None are registered. The American alligator (Alligator
Exclusion Fumigants mississippiensis, Fig. 1) is the most com-
mon of two crocodilians native to the
Bulkheads along edges of lakes and None are registered. United States and is one of 22 crocodil-
waterways. Trapping ian species worldwide. The other
Wire mesh fences. native crocodilian is the American
Baited hooks and trip-snare traps are
crocodile (Crocodylus acutus). Caimans
Habitat Modification most effective.
(Caiman spp.), imported from Central
Minimize emergent vegetation. Shooting and South America, are occasionally
released in the United States and can
Drain ponds and borrow pits where Hunt during the day or night with
survive and reproduce in Florida. The
appropriate and permitted. rifles or crossbows.
American alligator is distinguished
Frightening Other Methods from the American crocodile and
caiman by its more rounded snout and
Prodding or other harassment can Hunt with detachable-head harpoons
black and yellow-white coloration.
increase wariness. or handheld, breakaway pole
American crocodiles and caimans are
snares.
Hunting pressure increases wariness olive-brown in color and have more
and avoidance of people. Capture with snatch hooks or tongs. pointed snouts. American alligators
and crocodiles are similar in physical
Repellents size, whereas caimans are 40% smaller.
None are registered.

PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF WILDLIFE DAMAGE — 1994
Cooperative Extension Division
Institute of Agriculture and Natural Resources
University of Nebraska - Lincoln
United States Department of Agriculture
Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service
Animal Damage Control
F-1
Great Plains Agricultural Council
Wildlife Committee

Range fish and turtles comprise most of the her hatchlings against intruders and
diet. Recent studies in Florida and stay with them for up to 1 year, but
The American alligator is found in Louisiana indicate that cannibalism is gradually loses her affinity for them as
wetlands throughout the coastal plain common among alligators. Alligators the next breeding season approaches.
of the southeastern United States. readily take domestic dogs and cats. In
Viable alligator populations are found Growth rates of alligators are variable
rural areas, larger alligators take
in Texas, Oklahoma, Arkansas, Louisi- and dependent on diet, temperature,
calves, foals, goats, hogs, domestic
ana, Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, and sex. Alligators take 7 to 10 years to
waterfowl, and occasionally, full-
Georgia, South Carolina, and North reach 6 feet (1.8 m) in Louisiana, 9 to
grown cattle and horses.
Carolina. The northern range is limited 14 years in Florida, and up to 16 years
by low winter temperatures. Alligators in North Carolina. When maintained
are rarely found south of the Rio
General Biology, on farms under ideal temperature and
Grande drainage. Alligators prefer Reproduction, and nutrition, alligators can reach a length
fresh water but also inhabit brackish Behavior of 6 feet (1.8 m) in 3 years.
water and occasionally venture into Alligators are not normally aggressive
salt water. American crocodiles are Alligators are ectothermic — they rely
toward humans, but aberrant behavior
scarce and, in the United States, are on external sources of heat to maintain
occasionally occurs. Alligators can and
only found in the warmer coastal body temperature. They are most
will attack humans and cause serious
waters of Florida, south of Tampa and active at warmer temperatures and
injury or death. Most attacks are char-
Miami. Caimans rarely survive win- prefer 82o to 92o F (28o to 33o C). They
acterized by a single bite and release
ters north of central Florida and repro- stop feeding when ambient tempera-
with resulting puncture wounds.
duce only in southernmost Florida. ture drops below 70o F (21o C) and
Single bites are usually made by
become dormant below 55o F (13o C).
smaller alligators (less than 8 feet [2.4
Habitat Alligators are among the largest ani- m]) and result in an immediate release,
mals in North America. Males can possibly because they were unsure of
Alligators can be found in almost any
attain a size of more than 14 feet (4.3 their intended prey. One-third of the
type of fresh water, but population
m) and 1,000 pounds (473 kg). Females attacks, however, involve repeated
densities are greatest in wetlands with
can exceed 10 feet (3.1 m) and 250 bites, major injury, and sometimes
an abundant food supply and adjacent
pounds (116 kg). Alligators of both death. Serious and repeated attacks are
marsh habitat for nesting. In Texas,
sexes become sexually mature when normally made by alligators greater
Louisiana, and South Carolina, the
they attain a length of 6 to 7 feet (1.8 to than 8 feet in length and are most
highest densities are found in highly
2.1 m), but their full reproductive likely the result of chase and feeding
productive coastal impoundments. In
capacity is not realized until females behavior. Unprovoked attacks by alli-
Florida, highest densities occur in
and males are at least 7 feet (2.1 m) gators smaller than 5 feet (1.5 m) in
nutrient-enriched lakes and marshes.
and 8 feet (2.4 m) long, respectively. length are rare.
Coastal and inland marshes maintain
the highest alligator densities in Geor- Alligators begin courtship in April Contrary to popular belief, few attacks
gia, Alabama, and Mississippi. Alliga- throughout most of their range and can be attributed to wounded or terri-
tors commonly inhabit urban wetlands breed in late May and early June. torial alligators or females defending
(canals, lagoons, ponds, impound- Females lay a single clutch of 30 to 50 their nests or young. Necropsies of alli-
ments, and streams) throughout their eggs in a mound of vegetation from gators that have attacked humans have
range. early June to mid-July. Nests average shown that most are healthy and well-
about 2 feet (0.6 m) in height and 5 feet nourished. It is unlikely that alligator
Food Habits (1.5 m) in diameter. Nests are con- attacks are related to territorial
structed of the predominant surround- defense. When defending a territory,
Alligators are exclusively carnivorous
ing vegetation, which is commonly alligators display, vocalize, and nor-
and prey upon whatever creatures are
cordgrass (Spartina spp.), sawgrass mally approach on the surface of the
most available. Juvenile alligators (less
(Cladium jamaicense), cattail (Typha water where they can be more intimi-
than 4 feet [1.2 m]) eat crustaceans,
spp.), giant reed (Phragmytes spp.), dating. In most serious alligator
snails, and small fish; subadults (4 to 6
other marsh grasses, peat, pine attacks, victims were unaware of the
feet [1.2 to 1.8 m]) eat mostly fish, crus-
needles, and/or soil. Females tend alligator prior to the attack. Female
taceans, small mammals, and birds;
their nests and sometimes defend alligators frequently defend their nest
and adults (greater than 6 feet [1.8 m])
them against intruders, including and young, but there have been no
eat fish, mammals, turtles, birds, and
humans. Eggs normally take 65 days confirmed reports of humans being
other alligators. Diets are range-depen-
to complete incubation. In late August bitten by protective females. Brooding
dent; in Louisiana coastal marshes,
to early September, 9 to 10-inch (23 to females typically try to intimidate
adult alligators feed primarily on
25-cm) hatchlings are liberated from intruders by displaying and hissing
nutria (Myocastor coypus), whereas in
the nest by the female. She may defend before attacking.
Florida and northern Louisiana, rough

F-2

Alligators quickly become conditioned larity of appearance” to other alligator attacks in Florida, despite in-
to humans, especially when food is in- endangered and threatened crocodil- creasing human and alligator popula-
volved. Feeding-habituated alligators ians. This provides federal protection tions. The historically low attack rate
lose their fear of humans and can be for alligators but allows state- in Louisiana is attributed to a history
dangerous to unsuspecting humans, approved management and control of intense hunting.
especially children. Many aggressive programs. Alligators can be legally
Repellents
or “fearless” alligators have to be re- taken only by individuals with proper
moved each year following feeding by licenses or permits. Florida, Louisiana, None are registered.
humans. Ponds and waterways at golf Georgia, South Carolina, and Texas Toxicants
courses and high-density housing cre- have problem or nuisance alligator
ate a similar problem when alligators control programs that allow permitted None are registered.
become accustomed to living near hunters to kill or facilitate the removal Trapping
people. of nuisance alligators. Other states
use state wildlife officials to remove Alligators can be readily trapped be-
Damage and Damage problem animals. cause they are attracted to baits. A
Identification baited hook is the simplest method
and is used in Louisiana as a general
Damage by alligators is usually limited Damage Prevention and
harvest method and in Florida to
to injuries or death to humans or Control Methods remove nuisance alligators. Hooks are
domestic animals. Most alligator bites rigged by embedding a large fish hook
Exclusion
occur in Florida, which has document- (12/0 forged) in bait (nutria, fish, beef
ed approximately 140 unprovoked Alligators are most dangerous in water lungs, and chicken are popular) and
attacks from 1972 to 1991, or about 7 or at the water’s edge. They occasion- suspended from a tree limb or pole
per year. Since 1972, 5 deaths have ally make overland forays in search of about 2 feet (0.6 m) above the surface
been positively attributed to alligators. new habitat, mates, or prey. Concrete of the water. The bait should be set
Historically, nonfatal attacks have also or wooden bulkheads that are a mini- closer to the water to catch smaller alli-
been documented in South Carolina mum of 3 feet (1 m) above the high gators. To increase success, baited
(8), Louisiana (2), Texas (1), Georgia water mark will repel alligators along hooks should be set in the evening and
(1), and Alabama (1). waterways and lakes. Alligators have left overnight during the primary feed-
been documented to climb 5-foot (1.5- ing time of alligators. Once swallowed,
Alligators inflict damage with their
m) chain-link fences to get at dogs. the hook lodges in the alligator’s stom-
sharp, cone-shaped teeth and powerful
Fences at least 5 feet high with 4-inch ach and the alligator is retrieved with
jaws. Bites are characterized by punc-
(10-cm) mesh will effectively exclude the attached rope. This method can kill
ture wounds and/or torn flesh. Alliga-
larger alligators if the top of the fence or otherwise injure alligators and is not
tors, like other crocodilians that take
is angled outward. suitable for alligators that are to be
large prey, prefer to seize an append-
age and twist it off by spinning. Many Habitat Modification translocated. Hooked alligators are
serious injuries have involved badly most effectively killed by a shot to the
Elimination of wetlands will eradicate brain with a small caliber (.22) rifle.
damaged and broken arms on humans alligators because they depend on
and legs on animals. Sometimes alliga- Powerheads (“bangsticks”) can also be
water for cover, food, and temperature used to kill alligators, but should only
tors bite or eat previously drowned regulation. Most modifications of wet-
persons. Coroners can usually deter- be used with the barrel under water
lands, however, are unlawful and and according to manufacturer recom-
mine whether a person drowned would adversely affect other wildlife.
before or after being bitten. Stories of mendations.
Elimination of emergent vegetation
alligators breaking the legs of full- can reduce alligator densities by Trip-snare traps (Fig. 2) are more com-
grown men with their tails are reducing cover. Check with appropri- plicated and somewhat less effective
unfounded. ate conservation authorities before than are set hooks but do not injure or
Alligators sometimes excavate exten- modifying any wetlands. kill alligators. An alligator is attracted
sive burrows or dens for refuges from to the bait and, because of the place-
Frightening ment of the guide boards, is forced to
cold temperatures, drought, and
predators (other alligators and hu- Aversive conditioning using sticks to enter from the end of the trap with the
mans). Burrowing by alligators can prod “tame” alligators and rough han- snare. The alligator puts its head
damage dikes in impoundments. dling of captured alligators have been through the self-locking snare (No. 3,
attempted in several areas with limited 72-inch [1.84-m]; see Supplies and
success. Hunting pressure appears to Materials), seizes the bait, and releases
Legal Status the trigger mechanism as it pulls the
be the most effective means of increas-
The American alligator is federally ing alligator wariness and may be re- bait. The surgical tubing contracts and
classified as “threatened due to simi- sponsible for limiting the incidence of locks the snare on the alligator. These

F-3

traps can be modified as floating sets.
INSERT
A variation of the trip-snare trap can
Smooth Top
be set on alligator trails and rigged to Notch
trip by the weight of the alligator (see
Mazzotti and Brandt 1988).
Wire box traps have been used effec- See insert
tively to trap alligators. Heavy nets 3/16" x 3" wooden 6"
have been used with limited success to dowel with eyelet
inserted into surgi-
capture alligators and crocodiles at cal tubing 32" surgical
basking sites. tubing stretched
to 80" when snare
8 P common nail
is set
driven through 1" x 2"
Translocation upright and excess
trimmed to 3/4"
Translocation of problem alligators
was practiced extensively during the
1970s with limited success. Alligators,
especially larger ones, tended to return
to their original capture sites after
being moved. These alligators not only
caused problems during their return
trip but frequently required subse-
quent capture and translocation.
Translocation is not recommended
unless areas with depleted alligator
8"
populations are available for release of
problem animals.
WATER
Shooting
EDGE
Next to baited hooks, shooting is prob- Surgical
ably the most effective means of Kleflock
Fragile No. 2 Snare Tubing
removing alligators. Alligators can be Twig
shot during the day or at night, and
20"
should be shot in the brain case with a WATER
sufficiently powerful rifle (.243 caliber LINE
and larger) for an efficient and
humane kill. Firearms, however, pre-
sent public safety problems in most
nuisance alligator settings. Further-
more, alligators sink almost immedi- Fig. 2. Alligator trip-snare trap.
ately after dying and may be difficult
to recover (by gaffs or snatch hooks) in the alligator and, after the tip pene- size of the alligator; small alligators
areas with currents or dense submer- trates the skin, withdrawn, leaving the can be caught with standard light fish-
gent plants. This method may make tip embedded under the alligator’s ing gear while large alligators require
confirmation of a kill difficult and may skin (Fig. 3b). As tension is placed on 10/0 hooks, a 100-pound test line, and
compromise the commercial value of the retrieval line, the off-center attach- a heavy-duty fishing rod. Heavy hooks
the alligator. Crossbows with lines ment location of the cable causes the with nylon line can be hand-cast for
attached to barbed bolts work fairly tip to rotate into a position parallel to larger alligators. After the hook pen-
well at short distances but should only the skin of the alligator, providing a etrates the alligator’s skin, the line
be used to kill alligators. secure attachment to the alligator. Har- must be kept tight to prevent the hook
poons are less effective than firearms, from falling out. Alligators frequently
Other Methods but the attached line helps to ensure roll after being snagged and become
Detachable-head harpoons (Fig. 3a, b) the recovery of the alligator. entangled in the line. This entangle-
with attached lines have been used ef- ment permits a more effective recov-
Snatch hooks are weighted multitine
fectively to harvest nuisance alligators. ery. Snatch hooks work well during
hooks on fishing line that can be cast
A harpoon assembly (Fig. 3a) is at- the day and at night, provided that
over an alligator’s back and embedded
tached to a 10- to 12-foot (3- to 3.5-m) vegetation is minimal.
in its skin. The size of hooks and the
wooden pole. The harpoon is thrust at line strength should be suited to the Handheld poles with self-locking

F-4

a Base snares (sizes No. 2 and 3; Fig. 4) can be
(aluminum)
Peg Tube used effectively to capture unwary
Tip (stainless steel) (copper) alligators at night. For smaller (less
(stainless steel) than 6 feet [1.8 m]) alligators, snares
can be affixed to a pole with a hose
clamp. For adult alligators, snares
should be rigged to “break away”
from the pole by attaching the snare to
the pole with thin (1/2-inch [1-cm]
wide) duct tape (Fig. 4). The tape or
Cable clamps allow the snare to be maneu-
(stainless steel)
vered and are designed to release after
the snare is locked. Carefully place the
snare around the alligator’s neck, then
Skin jerk the pole and/or retrieval line to
b set the locking snare. A nylon retrieval
rope should always be fastened to the
snare and the rope secured to a boat or
other heavy object.
Muscle
For alligators less than 6 feet (1.8 m)
long, commercially available catch
poles (Fig. 5; see Supplies and
Materials) can be used. Snake tongs
(Fig. 6, see Supplies and Materials)
are effective for catching alligators less
Fig. 3. (a) Detachable-head harpoon; (b) Rotation of harpoon tip after penetration. than 2 feet (0.6 m) long.

Avoidance
Measures can be taken to avoid con-
frontations with alligators and sub-
stantially reduce the probability of
attacks. Avoid swimming or partici-
Duct tape pating in water activities in areas with
(1/2") large alligators. Avoid water activities
at dusk and at night during the
warmer months when alligators are
most active. Alligators can quickly
surge at least 5 feet (1.5 m) onto the
shore to seize prey, so care should be
taken when at the water’s edge. Do
not feed alligators. Avoid approaching
nests and capturing young (<2 feet
[0.6 m]) alligators.

Locking snare (No. 3) Nylon Economics of Damage and
rope Control
Alligators can cause injuries and death
to humans, livestock, and pets. All alli-
gator bites require medical treatment
and serious bites may require hospital-
ization. Infections can result from alli-
gator bites, particularly from the
Aeromonas spp. bacteria.
Fig. 4. Break-away snare.
Lawsuits that arise from findings of
negligence on the part of a private

F-5

Acknowledgments
We thank William Brownlee, Texas Parks and
Wildlife Department; Ted Joanen, Louisiana
Department of Wildlife and Fisheries; Steve
Fig. 5. Commercial catch pole. Ruckel, Georgia Department of Natural
Resources; Thomas Swayngham, South Carolina
Department of Wildlife and Marine Resources;
and Paul Moler and Michael Jennings, Florida
Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission for
providing information on their respective states
and for reviewing this chapter. We also thank
Thomas Murphy and Philip Wilkinson, South
Carolina Department of Wildlife and Marine
Resources, for providing diagrams of the trip-
snare trap.

Fig. 6. Snake tongs. For Additional
Information
Delany, M. F., A. R. Woodward, and I. H.
Kochel. 1988. Nuisance alligator food habits
in Florida. Florida Field Nat. 16:90-96.
Hines, T. C., and K. D. Keenlyne. 1976. Alligator
attacks on humans in Florida. Proc. Ann.
Conf. Southeast. Assoc. Fish Wildl. Agencies
30:358-361.
Hines, T. C., and A. R. Woodward. 1980.
Nuisance alligator control in Florida. Wildl.
Soc. Bull. 8:234-241.
Jennings, M. L., A. R. Woodward, and D. N.
David. 1989. Florida’s nuisance alligator
control program. Proc. Eastern Wildl.
Damage Control Conf. 4:29-36.
Joanen, T., and L. McNease. 1987. The
management of alligators in Louisiana,
U.S.A. Pages 33-42 in G. J. W. Webb, S. C.
Manolis, and P. J. Whitehead, eds. Wildlife
owner or governmental agency of $390 (at $30 per foot for skins and $5 management: crocodiles and alligators.
responsible for an attack site can lead per pound for meat). Other products Surrey Beatty and Sons Pty. Ltd., Chipping
to significant economic liability. such as skulls, teeth, fat, and organs Norton, NSW, Australia.
can be sold, but account for less than Mazzotti, F. J., and L. A. Brandt. 1988. A method
In Florida, approximately 15% of the of live-trapping wary crocodiles. Herpetol.
10% of the value of an alligator. Nui-
alligator complaints are due to fear of Rev. 19:40-41.
sance alligator control programs in
pet losses and, to a lesser extent, live-
several states use the sale of alligator Murphy, T., P. Wilkinson, J. Coker, and M.
stock losses. Losses of livestock other Hudson. 1983. The alligator trip snare: a live
skins to offset costs of removal and
than domestic waterfowl, however, capture method. South Carolina Wildl. and
administration. Marine Resour. Dep., Columbia. (unpub.
are uncommon and difficult to verify.
brochure).
Levees damaged by alligator burrows Florida has the most pressing nuisance
or dens may require repair. alligator problem and currently har- Thompson, B. C., L. A. Johnson, D. S. Lobpries,
vests about 4,000 alligators per year. and K. L. Brown. 1986. Capabilities of
Alligators are valuable for their skin hunters to shoot and retrieve free-swimming
Nuisance alligator harvests also occur alligators. Proc. Ann. Conf. Southeast. Assoc.
and meat. An average-sized nuisance
in Louisiana (600), Georgia (400), Fish Wildl. Agencies 40:342-348.
alligator typically yields 8 feet (2.4 m)
South Carolina (250), and Texas (50).
of skin and 30 pounds (13.5 kg) of
boneless meat with a wholesale value
Editors
Scott E. Hygnstrom
Robert M. Timm
Gary E. Larson

F-6

James F. Fowler
Wildlife Specialist
Louisiana Cooperative
CRAYFISH
Extension Service
Louisiana State University
Agricultural Center
Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803

Wendell Lorio
Aquaculture Specialist
Extension Service
Agricultural Center
Baton Rouge, LA 70803

Greg Lutz
Aquaculture Specialist
Extension Service
Agricultural Center
Baton Rouge, LA 70803

Fig. 1. Crayfish

Damage Prevention and Toxicants Identification, Range, and
Control Methods None are registered. Check individual Biology
state regulations for Special Local
Exclusion Needs registrations 24(c). Crayfish, also called crawfish,
Approved turf insecticides used for crawcrab, crab, stonecrab, crawdad,
Not practical.
insect pest control will also control creekcrab, and other local names, are
Cultural Methods native to fresh waters on all continents
crayfish in lawn and turf areas.
Deep tillage destroys burrows and except Africa, where they have been
Fumigants widely introduced. There are over 400
generally results in lower
populations. None are registered. Check state species in the family Astacidae world-
regulations for Special Local Needs wide, and approximately 300 species
Drainage of rice irrigation systems and in the United States. In size, shape, and
registrations 24(c).
fields during fall and winter months color, the variation is extremely wide
reduces populations. Trapping among species. The detailed life histo-
Repellents Not effective in eliminating ries and habits of all species of crayfish
populations. May be used in are beyond the scope of this handbook.
capturing crayfish for bait or food.

Animal Damage Control F-7
Wildlife Committee

Crayfish are economically important in Damage Prevention and Trapping
a number of states for use as fish bait
and for human consumption. In Loui-
Control Methods Wire cage traps, baited with fish,
chicken, or other meat can be used to
siana, the crayfish is a major economic
Cultural Methods capture crayfish, but they are not cost-
crop and comprises the second largest
effective in damage control situations.
aquaculture industry in North
Deep cultivation helps reduce burrow-
America. Over 130,000 acres (56,000
ing crayfish populations in rice fields
ha) are devoted solely to crayfish
and other grain crops. Drainage of rice Acknowledgments
culture.
irrigation canals and fallow fields dur-
Figure 1 by Emily Oseas Routman.
ing fall and winter is also helpful in
Damage reducing crayfish populations in these
areas. For Additional
Most damage associated with crayfish High populations of crayfish are Information
is the result of crayfish burrowing in generally associated with years of high
home lawns. Burrows created by rainfall. Unseasonably dry weather Hobbs, H. H., Jr. 1972. Crayfishes (Astacidae) of
burrowing species of crayfish are dam- conditions usually reduce crayfish North and middle America. Identification
aging to turf areas and may be hazard- Manual No. 9, Biota of Freshwater
numbers. Ecosystems, US Environ. Prot. Agency.
ous to mowing machinery. Newly Washington, DC. 173 pp.
planted rice fields may be damaged by Rapid drainage of baitfish ponds dur-
ing early spring helps eliminate cray- Momot, W. T., G. Howing, and P. D. Jones. 1978.
foraging crayfish where local popula- The dynamics of crayfish and their role in
tions are high. fish by exposing them to predators
ecosystems. Am. Midl. Nat. 99:10-35.
before burrowing activities begin.
Crayfish populations in commercial Principal predators include snakes, Pennak, R. W. 1978. Freshwater invertebrates of
baitfish ponds can reduce reproduc- the United States, 2d ed. John Wiley and
racoons, mink, otter, skunks, bass, Sons, New York. 803 pp.
tion by feeding on the eggs of the catfish, ibis, and herons.
baitfish as they are deposited on Pflieger, W. L. 1987. An introduction to the
spawning mats. During pond harvest, crayfish of Missouri. Missouri Dep. Conserv.
Toxicants Jefferson City. 16 pp.
crayfish caught in the nets injure and
destroy baitfish as they are being har- There are no General Use Pesticides Williams, A. B., and A. B. Leonard. 1952. The
crayfishes of Kansas. Univ. Kansas, Sci. Bull.
vested for market. registered for crayfish control. In some 34:961-1012.
Unwanted populations of crayfish states, however, Special Local Needs
have been established in the wild registration under section 24(c) of
because of the release of bait crayfish. FIFRA have been established for cer-
Some populations have reached tain insecticides for burrow treatment. Editors
extremely high levels. Crayfish can Scott E. Hygnstrom
Toxicants, where legal, may be used at
Robert M. Timm
reduce game fish populations by prey- any time of the year when crayfish are Gary E. Larson
ing on eggs and fry. They also can active, but best results are obtained in
degrade habitat by destroying aquatic early fall when adults are in their bur-
vegetation. rows. To be effective, applications of
toxic chemicals must reach the water
in the burrows. Additional treatments
Legal Status may be necessary where burrows in
dikes or dams open at the bottom into
Crayfish may be protected by law in a pond or stream.
some states. Harvest of crayfish may
also be regulated by state wildlife con- Fumigants
servation agencies. In areas where
damage occurs, control measures are None are federally registered for cray-
generally unrestricted. Check with fish control. Check with your local
your local agricultural or wildlife wildlife or agricultural agency for
authorities before initiating control. Special Local Needs registrations.
Unwanted populations of crayfish
have resulted in regulations against
the use of crayfish as bait in some
northern lakes.

F-8

Paul E. Moler
Wildlife Biologist
FROGS AND TOADS
Commission
Wildlife Research Laboratory

Fig. 1. Great Plains toad, Bufo cognatus

Damage Prevention and Habitat Modification Trapping
Control Methods Around hatchery ponds, keep vegeta- Funnel traps.
tion closely mown and remove
Capture
Exclusion emergent vegetation and other
types of cover. Capture by hand or gig at night.
Seal all openings 3/16 inch (0.5 cm) or
larger to exclude frogs. Frightening Egg masses may be removed with a
fine-meshed net.
A frogproof fence can be used for Not applicable.
nonclimbing species, but will be in- Shooting
Repellents
effective against treefrogs and a few Allowed in some states, but often not
related species. None are registered.
safe in areas requiring control.
On fish farms, mesh tenting over Toxicants Some states permit shooting only
ponds will serve to exclude frogs as during daylight hours.
well as birds and other predators.
Fumigants

F-9
Wildlife Committee

Identification mice, and small birds. In natural habi- tions of the west has seriously affected
tats, fish usually comprise less than 5% some native species. In at least some
Frogs and toads are amphibians with of the diet of the bullfrog. On fish cases, these introductions may have
four legs and no tail. They may have farms, as many as 30% of bullfrogs resulted from the unintentional release
skin that is smooth and moist or dry have been found to contain fish. of tadpoles during fish-stocking pro-
and warty, but they have no scales or grams. Considerable labor is required
claws. The front legs are short, but the General Biology, to separate tadpoles from loads of fry.
hind legs are muscular and elongated Reproduction, and Only in rare instances do frogs cause
for hopping or jumping. The popular Behavior any significant damage. Some species
distinction between frogs and toads is (toads, for example) produce skin
somewhat artificial; basically, toads Although some species spend most of secretions that are toxic if ingested.
are a particular group of frogs. their adult lives away from water, This does not normally present a prob-
Throughout this chapter, the term frog most frogs native to North America lem for people, and pets usually learn
will be used to include toads. North must return to water to lay eggs. Some to avoid such frogs. A few species
American frogs range in body size species breed during the cooler winter (giant toad, Colorado River toad) pro-
from the 11/16-inch (1.7-cm) little and spring months, whereas others duce especially copious or toxic secre-
grass frog to the 8-inch (20-cm) bull- breed during the warmer months. Fol- tions, and there have been cases in
frog. lowing rain, males begin calling from which dogs have died after biting
breeding sites. Each species has its them.
Range own distinctive call, and females
The noise sometimes produced by
respond only to the calls of their own
large breeding choruses of frogs fol-
At least 85 species of frogs are native species. Several recordings of frog calls
lowing heavy rains can be annoying to
to the United States, and there are are available, and four are listed at the
humans. These aggregations usually
three well-established exotic species. end of this chapter.
last only a few days, however, and sel-
There is no part of the country that is
Eggs are fertilized by the male as they dom warrant control. Similarly, com-
not home to at least a few species.
are released by the female. Hatching plaints sometimes arise when large
occurs a few days later. The aquatic numbers of young frogs leave the
Habitat tadpole stage may last as little as 2 to 3 ponds en masse, but the frogs disperse
weeks in some species of spadefoots or quickly, and the “problem” will take
Frogs occur in almost all nonmarine as long as 2 years in some northern care of itself in a few days.
habitats. “True” frogs (genus Rana) populations of bullfrogs.
and treefrogs predominate in the more
humid east. In the drier Great Plains Frogs are typically most active at Legal Status
and western regions, toads and night. Some species aggregate around
spadefoots are typically more numer- artificial lights and feed on the insects Laws pertaining to frogs vary from
ous. Whereas some species are seldom attracted there. Frogs are an important state to state. Some rare species (for
found far from permanent water, component of the vertebrate food example, Houston toad, Wyoming
others return to water only seasonally chain and are consumed by a variety toad, Pine Barrens treefrog) may be
to breed. Some desert species spend of predators, including fish, snakes, fully protected under federal or state
most of their time beneath ground, turtles, wading birds, raptors, skunks, laws. Seasons and bag limits may
venturing to the surface only following and raccoons. Individuals of many apply to other species (bullfrogs, for
rains. species may live 12 to 15 years, but life example). Permits to remove frogs that
expectancy is much shorter in the are causing damage are available in
Food Habits wild. some states. Contact your state wildlife
department to determine the legal
Most frogs have a two-phased life Damage status of frogs in your area.
cycle, including an aquatic larval form
The greatest potential for economic
(tadpole) and a terrestrial or semi-
aquatic adult form. Tadpoles are pri-
damage is at fish farms and hatcheries. Damage Prevention and
Tadpoles compete for food intended Control Methods
marily herbivorous, feeding on algae
for fish, and adult bullfrogs may actu-
and decaying organic matter. Adults,
ally feed on the fish. Losses are said to Exclusion
on the other hand, are carnivorous,
be high at some fish farms. One study
consuming almost any prey that can be The effectiveness of exclusion depends
suggested that the mere presence of
overpowered. Although the diet con- in part on the species involved. Most
high densities of tadpoles retarded
sists primarily of insects, crayfish, and species responsible for potential or real
reproduction of fish. Although the
other invertebrates, larger frogs occa- damage can be effectively excluded
bullfrog is native to most of the eastern
sionally take snakes, other frogs, fish, from limited areas. Giant toads (south-
United States, its introduction to por-

F-10

ern Florida, extreme southern Texas) Caution: traps may capture other non- Acknowledgments
or Colorado River toads (southern target species, including snakes,
Arizona, extreme southeastern Califor- turtles, and small mammals. Figure 1 by Randy Babb, Arizona Game and
nia) can be excluded from pet enclo- Fish Department.
sures by placing a strip of 1/8-inch Capture
(0.3-cm) mesh hardware cloth along Frogs can be located at night by the re-
the outside base of the perimeter fence.
For Additional
flection of their eyes in the beam of a
The hardware cloth should be buried headlamp. They can be collected by
Information
at least 4 inches (10 cm) in the ground gig or hand. Captured frogs may be
and should extend to a height of at Altig, R. 1970. A key to the tadpoles of the
eaten, or where allowed by law, sold continental United States and Canada.
least 20 inches (50 cm). A similar exclu- to provide additional economic Herpetol. 26:180-207.
sion fence can be used to control returns. Check with your state wildlife Bogert, C. M. Sounds of North American frogs:
breeding aggregations of nonclimbing agency regarding seasons, bag limits, the biological significance of voice in frogs.
species in small, urban stormwater legal methods of take, and restrictions (Record or cassette. Calls of 50 species.)
detention basins or to exclude these on sale. Distributed by Rounder Records,
species from small hatchery ponds. Cambridge, Massachusetts, and Smithsonian
Folkways Records, Rockville, Maryland.
Although treefrogs and some related Shooting
species will readily climb such a fence, Boyd, S. H. 1975. Inhibition of fish reproduction
most treefrogs normally breed in sea- Although shooting is allowable in by Rana catesbeiana larvae. Physiol. Zool.
some states, it is not safe in some areas 48:225-234.
sonal, fish-free waters. In addition,
their eggs and tadpoles are readily requiring control. Conant, R., and J. T. Collins. 1991. A field guide
to reptiles and amphibians: eastern and
eaten by fish, so they do not usually central North America. Houghton Mifflin
present a significant problem on fish Economics of Damage Co., Boston. 450 pp.
farms. and Control Corse, W. A., and D. E. Metter. 1980. Economics,
adult feeding and larval growth of Rana
Habitat Modification catesbeiana on a fish hatchery. J. Herpetol.
Frogs eat many insect pests. With the
Keep the shoreline of ponds free of 14:231-238.
exception of fish farms, control mea-
emergent vegetation to minimize cover sures for frogs are seldom warranted Duellman, W. E., and L. Trueb. 1986. Biology of
for adult frogs and allow predators to and, in most cases, should be discour- amphibians. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New
York. 670 pp.
assist in control. Efforts to directly aged. On fish farms, the economic
remove adult frogs at night will also be damage depends in part on the unit Elliot, L. 1992. The calls of frogs and toads:
facilitated. Eastern and Central North America.
value of the fish produced. Corse and (Cassette and booklet. Calls of 42 species.)
Metter (1980) provided data suggest- Chelsea Green Pub. Co. Post Mills, Vermont.
Frightening ing that a 350-pond farm that pro-
Johnson, T. R. Talking toad and frog poster and
Not applicable. duced goldfish might sustain $42,000 cassette. (Includes 20 frogs found in
in annual losses to bullfrogs, whereas Missouri.) Missouri Dep. Conserv., Jefferson
Repellents the same facility might sustain only City.

None are registered. $12,600 in losses if it produced golden Kellogg, P. P., and A. A. Allen. Voices of the
shiners, a less valuable species. It fol- night. (Calls of 34 species found in eastern
Toxicants lows that losses might be still higher North America). Houghton Mifflin Co. (for
the Cornell Lab. Ornith.), Boston.
on farms specializing in valuable
aquarium fishes. Stebbins, R. C. 1985. A field guide to western
reptiles and amphibians. Houghton Mifflin
Fumigants Co., Boston. 336 pp.

Trapping
Place funnel traps along the base of a Editors
Scott E. Hygnstrom
perimeter fence. Toads may also be Robert M. Timm
trapped by burying several 5-gallon Gary E. Larson
(19-l) buckets flush with the ground
surface beneath an overhead light.
Toads attracted by the insects drawn
to the light will fall into the buckets
and be unable to escape.

F-11

James L. Byford
Professor and Dean
School of Agriculture and
SALAMANDERS
Home Economics
The University of Tennessee, Martin
Martin, Tennessee 38238

Fig. 1. Tiger salamander, Ambystoma tigrinum.
Considerable variation in color pattern occurs in
this species.

Damage Prevention and Repellents Identification
Control Methods None are registered.
Toxicants
Salamanders are smooth-skinned am-
Exclusion
phibians with no skin covering such as
All openings 1/4 inch (0.6 cm) and None are registered. scales, hair, or feathers. They do not
larger should be sealed to exclude Fumigants have claws. Adult salamanders can be
salamanders. distinguished from frogs and toads by
Not applicable. the presence of a tail and by the nearly
Habitat Modification
Trapping equal size of their front and hind
Remove all items that lie close to the limbs. Most salamanders are moist or
ground in damp areas, such as Not applicable. slimy to the touch, which is a good
lumber or woodpiles. Shooting way to distinguish them from lizards,
which are dry.
Frightening Not applicable.
The waterdog, which is completely
Not applicable.
aquatic (water living), can be recog-
nized by its featherlike external gills.

F-13
Wildlife Committee

Range Fumigants
Legal Status
There are several dozen kinds of Not applicable.
Salamanders are protected in most
salamanders found in the United Trapping
states, as are other nongame animals.
States, but most occur only in parts of
In some areas, they may be legally Not applicable.
one or several states. Because
taken to use as bait for fishing, but in
salamanders are so dependent on Shooting
most areas they are completely pro-
specific habitat conditions, their
tected. Some salamanders are on state Not applicable.
movements are limited and home
lists of threatened and endangered
ranges are usually very small.
species. Economics of Damage and
Habitat Control
Damage Prevention and As mentioned earlier, salamanders are
Salamanders depend on water and Control Methods completely harmless. They do not
moisture for their existence. Because
Exclusion have a poisonous bite and cause no
they do not have a skin covering, they
hazard to people, except perhaps
dehydrate rapidly in dry environ- Salamanders generally do not enter frightening them. They cause no dam-
ments. The larvae spend the first part buildings. On occasion, they may be age to personal property. Therefore,
of their lives in water. After the larval found in a damp basement, if the base- expense toward control of salaman-
form changes to the adult form, most ment stays moist most of the time and ders is not justified. Most methods
salamanders leave the water and live there are items lying close to the damp required to remove salamanders are
in moist areas on land. They can floor. In such cases, all openings 1/4 inexpensive and are consistent with
usually be found under logs, under inch (0.6 cm) and larger should be good grooming of the yard and home
rocks, near streams, and in other areas sealed to exclude salamanders. Check environment.
where the ground is moist and shaded for openings around the corners of
from the sun. doors and windows, water pipes, and
Acknowledgments
electric service entrances. Holes in
Food Habits masonry foundations (poured concrete Figure 1 by Emily Oseas Routman.
and concrete blocks or bricks) should
All salamanders are predators. They be sealed with mortar. Openings in
commonly eat insects, slugs, wood should be sealed with fine mesh For Additional
earthworms, and other invertebrates. (1/8-inch [0.3-cm]) hardware cloth Information
Some eat leeches, tiny mollusks, and/or sheet metal.
crustaceans, and frogs’ eggs. As Barker, W. 1964. Familiar reptiles and
aquatic larvae, they typically eat Habitat Modification amphibians of America. Harper & Row.
New York. 220 pp.
aquatic invertebrates, but some may
even be cannibalistic. In situations where salamanders are Cochran, D. M. 1961. Living amphibians of the
inside buildings, steps should be taken world. Doubleday. New York. 199 pp.
to dry out the basement area (see a
Conant, R. 1975. A field guide to reptiles and
Behavior construction specialist for this) or amphibians of eastern and central North
remove objects from the floor of damp America, 2d ed. Houghton Mifflin Co.,
Salamanders generally are active when basements where salamanders can Boston. 429 pp.
there is no sunshine—at night or on hide. Keep areas outside of buildings Goin, C. J., and O. B. Goin. 1962. Introduction to
cloudy, rainy days. On sunny days free from objects that salamanders can herpetology. W. H. Freeman, San Francisco.
they generally hide in moist areas, hide under—lumber, sticks, old 341 pp.
such as under stones and logs. Since boards, or firewood. If such items are Huheey, J. E., and A. Stupka. 1967. Amphibians
salamanders are mostly nocturnal off the ground (stacked on runners) and reptiles of the Great Smoky Mountains
(active at night), they are seldom seen the soil underneath can dry, making National Park. Univ. Tennessee Press.
by people. Knoxville. 98 pp.
the area unattractive to salamanders.
Schlauch, F. C. 1976. City snakes, suburban
Frightening salamanders. Nat. Hist. 85:46-53.
Damage
Not applicable.
Salamanders do not cause damage to
Repellents
people or property. Occasionally, they
frighten people who are not familiar None are registered. Editors
Scott E. Hygnstrom
with them. None have a poisonous Robert M. Timm
Toxicants
bite. Gary E. Larson

F-14

James L. Byford
Professor and Dean
School of Agriculture and
NONPOISONOUS
Home Economics
The University of Tennessee, Martin
Martin, Tennessee 38238
SNAKES
Fig. 1. Bullsnake (gopher snake), Pituophis
melanoleucus

Damage Prevention and Frightening Other Methods
Control Methods Not applicable. Remove snakes from inside buildings
Repellents by placing piles of damp burlap
Exclusion bags or towels in areas where
Several snake repellents have been snakes have been seen. After snakes
Seal all openings (1/4 inch [0.6 cm]
promoted, but none are consistently have been attracted, remove the
and larger) with mortar, 1/8-inch
effective. bags and snake(s) from the
(0.3-cm) hardware cloth, sheet
metal, or steel wool. Toxicants building.
A snake-proof fence can be used to None are registered. Glue boards can be used to capture
exclude snakes. Fumigants snakes found inside houses or other
buildings. Once caught, the snake
Habitat Modification None are registered. and board can be taken outside. The
Reduce rodent populations. Trapping snake can be released unharmed by
pouring vegetable oil on it (the oil
Keep all vegetation closely mowed; A funnel trap with drift fences can be
counteracts the adhesive).
remove bushes, shrubs, rocks, used.
boards, firewood, and debris lying Since nonpoisonous snakes are
Shooting
close to the ground, especially completely harmless, control
around buildings. Nonpoisonous snakes are protected by programs for them are not necessary.
law in most states and indiscriminate Learn how to distinguish between
Alter all sites that provide cool, damp, killing is illegal. Shooting or clubbing poisonous and nonpoisonous snakes
dark habitat for snakes. is effective, however, where it is in your area.
allowed, with permission from the
state wildlife agency.

Great Plains Agricultural Council F-15
Wildlife Committee

Identification
Of the many kinds of snakes found in
the United States, only the following
Nonpoisonous
are harmful: rattlesnakes, copper-
heads, cottonmouths, coral snakes,
and sea snakes. The latter group lives
only in the oceans. All poisonous
snakes, except coral snakes and sea
snakes, belong in a group called pit
vipers. There are three ways to distin- Poisonous
guish between pit vipers and
nonpoisonous snakes in the United
States:
Fig. 2. Nonpoisonous snakes have two rows of scales between the vent and the tip of the tail, while
(1) All pit vipers have a deep pit on poisonous snakes have only one row.
each side of the head, midway
between the eye and the nostril.
Nonpoisonous snakes do not have Round pupil
these pits.
(2) On the underside of the tail of
Nostril
pit vipers, scales go all the way
across in one row (except on the
very tip of the tail, which may have
two rows in some cases). On the
underside of the tail of all non-
poisonous snakes, scales are in two
Fig. 3. Nonpoisonous snakes have a round eye pupil and have no pit between the eye and the nostril.
rows all the way from the vent of
the snake to the tip of the tail (Fig.
2). The shed skin of a snake shows
the same characteristics. Habitat Food Habits
(3) The pupil of pit vipers is verti- Snakes are not very mobile, and even All snakes are predators, and the dif-
cally elliptical (egg-shaped). In very though some are fairly adaptable, most ferent species eat many different kinds
bright light, the pupil may be have specific habitat requirements. of food. Rat snakes eat primarily
almost a vertical line, due to Some live underground (these are rodents (such as rats, mice, and chip-
extreme contraction to shut out mostly small in size), and some have munks), bird eggs, and baby birds.
light. The pupil of nonpoisonous eyes shielded by scales of the head. King snakes eat other snakes, as well
snakes is perfectly round (Fig. 3). Others, such as green snakes, live pri- as rodents, young birds, and bird eggs.
marily in trees. One group spends its Some snakes, such as green snakes, eat
The poisonous coral snake is ringed
entire life in the oceans. In general, primarily insects. Some small snakes,
with red, yellow, and black, with red
snakes like cool, damp, dark areas such as earth snakes and worm snakes,
and yellow rings touching. Non-
where they can find food. The follow- eat earthworms, slugs, and salaman-
poisonous mimics of the coral snake
ing are areas around the home that ders. Water snakes eat primarily frogs,
(such as the scarlet king snake) have
seem to be attractive to snakes: fire- fish, and tadpoles.
red and yellow rings, separated by
wood stacked directly on the ground;
black rings. A helpful saying to memo-
old lumber piles; junk piles; flower General Biology,
rize is: “Red on yellow, kill a fellow;
beds with heavy mulch; gardens;
red on black, friend of Jack.”
unkempt basements; shrubbery grow-
Reproduction, and
ing against foundations; barn lofts— Behavior
Range especially where stored feed attracts Snakes are specialized animals, having
Some species of nonpoisonous snakes rodents; attics in houses where there is elongated bodies and no legs. They
occur throughout several states, but a rodent or bat problem; stream banks; have no ears, externally or internally,
the majority have only limited ranges. pond banks where there are boards, and no eyelids, except for a protective
innertubes, tires, planks, and other window beneath which the eye moves.
items lying on the bank; unmowed The organs of the body are elongated.
lawns; and abandoned lots and fields. Snakes have a long, forked tongue,

F-16

which helps them smell. Gaseous par- observed or felt, the bite was from a concrete and concrete blocks or bricks)
ticles from odors are picked up by the nonpoisonous snake. Also, bites from should be sealed with mortar to
tongue and inserted into the two-holed one of the pit vipers (copperheads, exclude snakes. Holes in wooden
organ, called the Jacobson’s Organ, at rattlesnakes, and cottonmouths) will buildings can be sealed with fine mesh
the roof of the mouth. reveal two fang marks, in addition to (1/8-inch [0.3-cm]) hardware cloth or
teeth marks. All snakes have teeth; sheet metal.
The two halves of the lower jaw are
only pit vipers have fangs. North
not fused, but are connected by a liga- In some cases, the homeowner may get
American pit vipers have only two
ment to each other. They are also peace of mind by constructing a snake-
rows of teeth on top and two on the
loosely connected so the snake can proof fence around the home or yard
bottom, whereas nonpoisonous snakes
swallow food much larger than its (Fig. 4). A properly constructed snake-
have four on top and four on the
head. Because snakes are cold-blooded proof fence will keep out all poisonous
bottom.
and not very active, one meal may last snakes and most harmless snakes
them several weeks. Also, because (some nonpoisonous snakes are fairly
they are cold-blooded, they may hiber- Legal Status good climbers). The cost of fencing a
nate during cold weather months or In most states, snakes are considered whole yard may be high, but it costs
aestivate during hot summer months nongame wildlife and are protected by little to enclose a play space for chil-
when the climate is severe. In either state law unless they are about to dren too young to recognize danger-
case, they consume little or no food cause personal or property damage. ous snakes. The following design is
during these times. Some snakes lay Therefore, snakes should not be indis- taken from information from the US
eggs, some hatch their eggs inside the criminately killed. Some species are Fish and Wildlife Service.
body, and some give live birth. The listed on federal and/or state threat- The fence should be made of heavy
young of copperheads, rattlesnakes, ened and endangered species lists. galvanized hardware cloth, 36 inches
and cottonmouths are born alive.
(91 cm) wide with a 1/4-inch (0.6-cm)
Nonpoisonous snakes are harmless to Damage Prevention and mesh. The lower edge should be bur-
humans. In most cases, a snake will ied 6 inches (15 cm) in the ground, and
crawl away when approached if it feels
Control Methods the fence should be slanted outward
it can reach cover safely. No snakes Exclusion from the bottom to the top at a 30o
charge or attack people, with the angle (Fig. 5). Place supporting stakes
Snakes enter houses, barns and other
exception of the racers, which occa- inside the fence and make sure that
buildings when habitat conditions are
sionally bluff by advancing toward an any gate is tightly fitted. Gates should
suitable inside the buildings. They are
intruder. Racers will retreat rapidly, swing inward because of the outward
particularly attracted to rodents and
however, if challenged. Snakes react slope of the fence. A 36-inch (91-cm)
insects as well as cool, damp, dark
only when cornered. Different species vertical fence with a 12-inch (30-cm) lip
areas often associated with buildings.
react in different ways, playing dead at the top, facing outside and angled
All openings 1/4 inch (0.6 cm) and
by turning over on the back, hissing, downward at a 30o angle would prob-
larger should be sealed to exclude
opening the mouth in a menacing ably work as well. Any opening under
snakes. Check the corners of doors and
manner, coiling, and striking and the fence should be firmly filled—con-
windows, as well as around water
biting if necessary. crete is preferable. Mow all vegetation
pipe and electrical service entrances.
just outside the fence, for snakes might
Holes in masonry foundations (poured
Damage and Damage
Identification
A nonpoisonous snake bite has no
venom and can do no more harm than
frighten the victim. After being bitten
several thousand times by non-
poisonous snakes, the author and his
students have never suffered any
adverse reaction, and no treatment
was ever used. The only harm non-
poisonous snakes can cause is frighten-
ing people who are not familiar with
them. A bite from a poisonous snake,
however, causes an almost immediate
reaction—swelling, tissue turning a
dark blue-black, a tingling sensation, Fig. 4. Though fairly expensive, a properly constructed snake-proof fence can keep snakes from en-
and nausea. If none of these is tering a given area.

F-17

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