2. The Theory of Consumer
Behavior
The principle assumption upon which the
theory of consumer behavior and demand is
built is: a consumer attempts to allocate
his/her limited money income among
available goods and services so as to
maximize his/her utility (satisfaction).
3. Theory of Consumer Behavior
Useful for understanding the demand side of
the market.
Utility - amount of satisfaction derived from the
consumption of a commodity or services.
Understanding of utility is important because
its influence the demand and price of the
product.
4. Theories of Consumer Choice
Utility Concepts:
– The Cardinal Utility Theory (TUC)
• Utility is measurable in a cardinal sense
• cardinal utility - assumes that we can assign
values for utility, (Jevons, Walras, and
Marshall). E.g., derive 100 units from eating a
slice of pizza
– The Ordinal Utility Theory (TUO)
• Utility is measurable in an ordinal sense
• ordinal utility approach - does not assign values,
instead works with a ranking of preferences.
(Pareto, Hicks, Slutsky)
5. The Cardinal Approach
Nineteenth century economists, such as Jevons,
Menger and Walras, assumed that utility was
measurable in a cardinal sense, which means
that the difference between two measurement is
itself numerically significant.
UX = f (X), UY = f (Y), …..
Utility is maximized rule:
MUX/ MUY = PX / PY
6. The Cardinal Approach
Total utility (TU) - the overall level of
satisfaction derived from consuming a good or
service
Marginal utility (MU) additional satisfaction
that an individual derives from consuming an
additional unit of a good or service.
Formula :
MU = Change in total utility
Change in quantity
= ∆ TU
∆ Q
7. The Cardinal Approach
Law of Diminishing Marginal Utility (Return) = As more
and more of a good are consumed, the process of
consumption will (at some point) yield smaller and
smaller additions to utility
When the total utility maximum, marginal utility = 0
When the total utility begins to decrease, the
marginal utility = negative (-ve)
9. The Cardinal Approach
TU, in general, increases
with Q
At some point, TU can start
falling with Q (see Q = 5)
If TU is increasing, MU > 0
From Q = 1 onwards, MU is
declining ⇒ principle of
diminishing marginal utility
⇒ As more and more of a
good are consumed, the
process of consumption will
(at some point) yield smaller
and smaller additions to
utility
10. Consumer Equilibrium
So far, we have assumed that any amount
of goods and services are always
available for consumption
In reality, consumers face constraints
(income and prices):
– Limited consumers income or budget
– Goods can be obtained at a price
16. Cont.
2 potential optimum positions
Combination A: → X = 3 and Y = 4
– TU = TUX + TUY = 45 + 178 = 223
Combination B: → X = 5 and Y = 5
– TU = TUX + TUY = 54 + 198 = 252
17. Cont.
Presence of 2 potential equilibrium
positions suggests that we need to
consider income. To do so let us examine
how much each consumer spends for
each combination.
Expenditure per combination
– Total expenditure = PX X + PY Y
– Combination A: 3(2) + 4(10) = 46
– Combination B: 5(2) + 5(10) = 60
18. Cont.
Scenarios:
– If consumer’s income = 46, then the
optimum is given by combination A. .…
Combination B is not affordable
– If the consumer’s income = 60, then the
optimum is given by Combination
B….Combination A is affordable but it
yields a lower level of utility
19. The Ordinal Approach
Economists following the lead of Hicks,
Slutsky and Pareto believe that utility is
measurable in an ordinal sense--the utility
derived from consuming a goods, such as X,
Y and there will be only possibilities of
camperation and we can rank which one is
best.
20. Cont.
Ordinal Utility Theory (TUO)
– Can be measured in qualitative,
not quantitative, but only lists
the main options (indifference curves & budget
line).
Rational human beings will choose
to maximize the utility by selecting the
highest utility
Difference consumers, difference utilities.
21. INDIFFERENCE CURVE (IC)
Curve where the points represent a
combination of items when the
consumer at indifference situation
(satisfaction).
Axes: both axes refer to the quantity of
goods
For the combination that produces a
higher level of satisfaction, the
curves shift to the right (IC2) from the
first curve (IC1)
In contrast, the curves shift to the
23. PROPERTIES OF INDIFFERENCE CURVE
Downward sloping from left to right: This shows an increase
in quantity of certain good.
Convex to the origin: the marginal rate of substitution (MRS)
decreased
– MRS = quantity of goods Y willing to substitute to obtain one
unit of goods X & this substitution is to maintain its
position at the same level of satisfaction
Do not cross (intersect): consumer preferences transitive
Different ICs show different level of satisfaction. Far from the
origin, the higher the satisfaction.
24. Budget line (BL)
Line showing all combinations of items can be
purchased for a particular level of income (M) ;
M =PxQx + PyQy
The slope depends on the prices of
goods X and Y, the slope = Px/Py
Slope -ve: to use more goods X, Y should reduce &
vice versa
In the X-axis, when the quantity Y = 0, all M used to
purchase X; M = PxQx ⇒Qx =M/Px
At the Y axis, when the quantity X = 0, all M used to
purchase Y; M = PyQy ⇒Qy =M/Py
25. FACTORS SHIFT THE BUDGET LINE
Changes in prices of goods X
Y
Px Px X
26. EFFECTS
OF PRICE CHANGES ON THE
BUDGET LINE
When price of good X increases, the quantity of
good X is reduced (by maintaining the quantity of
Y) & vice versa.
⇒ Points on the X axis shifted to the left (a
small quantity of X)
When the price of Y increases, the quantity Y is
reduced (by maintaining the quantity of X) &
vice versa
⇒ Point on Y axis move to the bottom
(small quantity in Y)
27. FACTORS SHIFT THE BUDGET LINE
Changes in the price of goods Y
Y
Py
Py
X
29. EFFECTS OF INCOME
CHANGES ON THE
BUDGET LINE
When M increases, QX and QY can be
bought even more, a point on the X
axis shifted to the right & a point on
the Y axis move on; & vice
versa when M decreases.
32. Price Consumption Curve (PCC)
changes in Px
Y
Price Consumption Curve (PCC)
X
PCC = Line connecting the equilibrium points, E the event of changes to
the prices of goods.
33. INCOME CONSUMPTION CURVE
(ICC)
If a fixed price and income increases, the
budget line shifts to the right,
thus shifting the equilibrium point higher.
Equilibrium point some
income items associated with
the line - can be income
consumption curve (ICC).
ICC shows the points for the combination
of goods that can be purchased when
Utility theory provides a methodological framework for the evaluation of alternative choices made by individuals, firms and organizations. Utility refers to the satisfaction that each choice provides to the decision maker. Thus, utility theory assumes that any decision is made on the basis of the utility maximization principle, according to which the best choice is the one that provides the highest utility (satisfaction) to the decision maker.
UTILITY THEORY IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOR
Utility theory is often used to explain the behavior of individual consumers. In this case the consumer plays the role of the decision maker that must decide how much of each of the many different goods and services to consume so as to secure the highest possible level of total utility subject to his/her available income and the prices of the goods/services.
UTILITY THEORY AND DEMAND
In addition to providing an explanation of consumer disposition of income, utility theory is useful in establishing individual consumer demand curves for goods and services. A consumer's demand curve for a good or service shows the different quantities that consumers purchase at various alternative prices. Factors that are held constant are consumers' tastes and preferences, income, and price.
UTILITY FUNCTIONS
In all cases the utility that the decision maker gets from selecting a specific choice is measure by a utility function U, which is a mathematical representation of the decision maker's system of preferences such that: U(x) > U(y), where choice x is preferred over choice y or U(x) = U(y), where choice x is indifferent from choice y—both choices are equally preferred.
Utility functions can be either cardinal or ordinal. In the former case, a utility function is used to derive a numerical score for each choice that represents the utility of this choice. In this setting the utilities (scores) assigned to different choices are directly comparable. For instance, a utility of 100 units towards a cup of tea is twice as desirable as a cup of coffee with a utility level of 50 units. In the ordinal case, the magnitude of the utilities (scores) are not important; only the ordering of the choices as implied by their utilities matters. For instance, a utility of 100 towards a cup of tea and a utility level of 50 units for a cup of coffee simply state that a cup of coffee is preferred to a cup of tea, but it cannot be argued that a cup of tea is twice as desirable as a cup of coffee. Within this setting, it is important to note that an ordinal utility function is not unique, since any monotonic increasing transformation of an ordinal utility function will still provide the same ordering for the choices.
ASSUMPTIONS ON PREFERENCES
Irrespective of the type of utility function, utility theory assumes that preferences are complete, reflexive and transitive. The preferences are said to be complete if for any pair of choices x and y, one and only one of the following be stated: (1) x is preferred to y, (2) y is preferred to x, or (3) x and y are equally preferred. The preferences are said to be reflexive if for any pair of choices x and y such that x equally preferred to y, it is concluded that y is also equally preferred to x. Finally, the preferences are said to be transitive if for any three choices x, y, z such that x is preferred over y, and y is preferred over z, it is concluded that x is preferred over z. The hypotheses on reflexivity and transitivity imply that the decision maker is consistent (rational).
MARGINAL RATE OF SUBSTITUTION
A further assumption of utility theory is that decision makers are willing to trade one choice for another. The existing trade-offs define the marginal rate of substitution. As example suppose that two investment projects are considered by a decision maker. Project x has a return of 6 percent and a risk of 4 percent, whereas the return for project y is 5 percent and its risk is 2 percent. Furthermore assume that the decision maker considers both projects to be equally preferred. With this assumption it is clear that the decision maker is willing to increase the risk by 2 percent in order to improve return by 1 percent. Therefore, the marginal rate of substitution of risk for return is 2. In real world situations, the marginal rates of substitution are often decreasing. Such situations correspond to diminishing marginal utilities (marginal utility is defined as the change in total utility resulting from a one-unit change in consumption of the good or service). In the above example, we can assume that the decision maker is willing to take higher risks in order to get higher return, but only up to a specific point which is called saturation point. Once the risk has reached that point, the decision maker would not be willing to take any higher risk to increase return and therefore the marginal rate of substitution at this risk level would be zero.
MULTI-ATTRIBUTE UTILITY THEORY
The traditional framework of utility theory has been extended over the past three decades to the multi-attribute case, in which decisions are taken by multiple criteria. Multi-attribute utility theory has been evolved as one of the most important topics in multiple criteria decision making with many real world applications in complex real world problems.
The concept of utility can be used to analyze individual consumer behavior, to explain individual consumer demand curves as well as in modeling the decision makers' preferences. In all cases, it is assumed that some choices are evaluated and the best one is identified as the choice that maximizes the utility or satisfaction. The utility theory has been a research topic of major importance for the development of economics, decision theory, and management and it still attracts the interest of both practitioners and academic researchers.
SEE ALSO: Consumer Behavior ; Economics
Michael Doumpos and
Constantin Zopounidis
FURTHER READING:
Aleskerov, F., and B. Monjardet. Utility Maximization, Choice and Preference. Heidelberg: Springer Verlag, 2002.
Belton, V. and T.J. Stewart. Multiple Criteria Decision Analysis: An Integrated Approach. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2002.
Hammond, J.S, R.L. Keeney, and H. Raiffa. Smart Choices: A Practical Guide to Making Better Decisions. Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 2002.
Keeney, R.L. and H. Raiffa. Decisions with Multiple Objectives: Preference and Value Tradeoffs. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1993.
Read more: http://www.referenceforbusiness.com/management/Tr-Z/Utility-Theory.html#ixzz4LzBt0Qgd
Ordinal Utility Approach:
The basic idea behind ordinal utility approach is that a consumer keeps number of pairs of two commodities in his mind which give him equal level of satisfaction. This means that the utility can be ranked qualitatively.
The ordinal utility approach differs from the cardinal utility approach (also called classical theory) in the sense that the satisfaction derived from various commodities cannot be measured objectively.
Ordinal theory is also known as neo-classical theory of consumer equilibrium, Hicksian theory of consumer behavior, indifference curve theory, optimal choice theory. This approach also explains the consumer's equilibrium who is confronted with the multiplicity of objectives and scarcity of money income.
The important tools of ordinal utility are:
The concept of indifference curves.
The slop of I.C. i.e. marginal rate of substitution.
The budget line.
Assumptions:
The ordinal utility approach is based on the following assumptions:
A consumer substitutes commodities rationally in order to maximize his level of satisfaction.
A consumer can rank his preferences according to the satisfaction of each basket of goods.
The consumer is consistent in his choices.
It is assumed that each of the good is divisible.
It is assumed that the consumer has full knowledge of prices in the market.
The consumer's scale of preferences is so complete that consumer is indifferent between them.
Two commodities are used by the consumer. It is also known as two commodities model.
Two commodities X and Y are substitutes of each other. These commodities can be easily substituted in various pairs.
Cardinal Utility
Definition: The Cardinal Utility approach is propounded by neo-classical economists, who believe that utility is measurable, and the customer can express his satisfaction in cardinal or quantitative numbers, such as 1,2,3, and so on.
Read more: http://businessjargons.com/cardinal-utility.html#ixzz4LzdVvF3w