Critical thinking

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The document provides an overview of critical thinking skills for kids, including defining key concepts like facts versus opinions, understanding cognitive biases, identifying fallacies in reasoning, deductive and non-deductive logic, and establishing causation. It covers logical concepts like premises, conclusions, Venn diagrams, and syllogisms. It also discusses moral reasoning and evaluating the reliability of sources and arguments.

Formation

Facts VS. Opinion
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fnFnWWAnlkw

belief bias
all dogs are animal
is animal
is dog

downplayer
So called
Merely
Quotation Mark
Only

logic deduction
•A -> B, B -> C

•A -> C
•A -> B

•not B -> not A

illicit inductive conversation
“Most wealthy people are men so most men are wealthy.”
“Most modern terrorists are Muslims, therefore most Muslims are terrorists.”

Hypotheis
• method of diﬀerence

• method of agreement (cum hoc, ergo propter hoc)

• causal mechanism

• best diagnosis method

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Why are we doing this again?1) Generally speaking, humans are not very good at reasoning.2) The purpose of this class is to make you better at reasoning.3) Fallacies are specific examples of bad reasoning, and they are all around us.Thus, learning to recognize fallacies is likely to make you commit them less often, and consequently become a better reasoner. Hasty generalizationHasty generalization: inappropriately generalizing from too few examples.Anecdotal evidence Freewrite: Hasty Generalization Is there reasoning behind prejudice? What is the motivating force of prejudice or racism (as a subcategory of prejudice)? Does a person’s limited experiences with another group lead them to unjustified conclusions about an entire race (in which case it’s a hasty generalization)? Or is it some deep-seated prejudice that goes beyond reason? Generalization from an exceptional caseGeneralization from an exceptional case: Inappropriately generalizing from cases that are unique, or unusual.Biased sampleSelf-selection fallacy AccidentAccident: Assuming a general claim applies to a specific case that could be unusual.Example: “In America we have the right to bear arms. So if I want to point a gun at a police officer, I should be able to do so.” Weak AnalogyWeak analogy: a weak argument based on unimportant or irrelevant similarities between the things being compared.Example: “Going to SWC is like being in prison. After all, both the campus and the prison are buildings constructed by humans.”Example: “Corporations are like people. If people can be tried in a court of law, then so can corporations.” Untestable ExplanationUntestable explanation: when someone provides an explanation that cannot even be tested in principle.Example: “Charlene is really good at helping people because she gives off such good vibes.” Slippery SlopeSlippery Slope: the suggestion that something will progress by degrees to an exaggerated or undesirable outcome. False cause/correlation is not causationFalse cause: assuming that because one event happened after (or around the same time as) another that it was caused by the other.In assuming that one event causes another, the person committing this fallacy can overlook:CoincidenceA common causeRandom variationRegression to the mean False cause (random variation)“In our tests, we randomly selected men to drive a golf ball as far as they could. We then had them wear our magnetic bracelet and try again. On the second occasion the men hit the ball an average of ten feet further. Our bracelet can lengthen your drive as well.” False cause (regression to the mean)“The girls were well below their average on Monday, so I made them do 50 sets of pushups. Guess what? Their average was much better on Tuesday. Pushups did the trick.” Appeal to AuthorityAppeal to authority: giving the opinion of a non-authoritative source to support a claim.Example: “My smart friend says that Obamacare is bad for the country. So he mu.

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Week 3 - Instructor Guidance Week 3: Inductive Reasoning This week’s guidance will cover the following topics: 1. The Nature of Inductive Reasoning 2. Appeals to Authority 3. Inductive Generalizations 4. Statistical Syllogisms 5. Arguments from Analogy 6. Inferences to the Best Explanation 7. Causal Reasoning 8. Things to Do This Week The Nature of Inductive Reasoning Will the sun rise tomorrow morning? Of course it will, but how do you know? The reasoning seems to go as follows: Premise 1: The sun has risen every morning throughout known history Conclusion: Therefore, the sun will rise tomorrow Deductively, this argument is invalid, for it is logically possible that the earth could stop spinning tonight. Does that mean that the argument is no good? Of course not. In fact, its premise makes the conclusion is virtually certain. This is an example of a very good argument that is not intended to be deductively valid. That is because it is actually an inductive argument. An argument is inductive if it does not attempt to be valid, but intends to give strong evidence for the truth of its conclusion. Many might see inductive reasoning as inferior to deductive reasoning, but that is not generally the case. In fact, inductive arguments often provide much better arguments for the truths of their conclusions than deductive ones. The deductively valid version of our argument about the sun, for example, goes: Premise 1: The sun will always rise in the morning Conclusion: Therefore the sun will rise tomorrow morning This second argument, while valid, actually gives less evidence for the conclusion because its second premise is false (the sun will eventually expand to engulf the earth and then collapse). Therefore the deductive argument is unsound and so offers little evidence for the conclusion, whereas the original inductive argument made the conclusion virtually certain. In other words, inductive reasoning in general can be even better than deductive reasoning in many cases; the trick is to determine which inductive arguments are good and which ones are not so good.Strength versus Weakness Just as it is the goal of deductive reasoning to be valid, it is the goal of a inductive reasoning to be strong . An inductive argument is strong in case its premises, if true, would make the conclusion very likely to be true as well. The above argument about the sun rising is very strong. Most inductive arguments are less strong, all the way along a spectrum between strength and weakness. Here are three with varying degrees of inductive strength: Weak: Premise 1: John is tall and in college. Conclusion: Therefore, he probably plays on the basketball team. Moderate: Premise 1: The Lions are a 14 point favorite. Conclusion: So they will probably win. Strong: Premise 1: All of the TV meteorologists report a 99% chance of rain tomorrow. Conclusion: So it will probably rain tomorrow. Note that the degree of strength of an inductive argument is independent of whether the.

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1 Running Head: FALLACY JOURNAL 5 FALLACY JOURNAL Name Institution Date Emotionally Loaded Language This fallacy arises when one uses the terms that shows more about ones feelings on the issues other than the rational basis from which those feelings are derived or when one uses emotions to alter the belief or behavior of others. Emotionally loaded language uses terms to evoke emotional response towards a particular product rather than explaining the reasoning for using or purchasing the product (Frans van Bart and Bert 2009). This fallacy manipulates emotions in order to get ones attention away from an important issue. An emotional appeal is directed to divert the audience emotions and often uses the appeal of prejudice rather than offer a good assessment of a situation (Frans van Bart and Bert 2009). In the advertisement words positive connotation also known as glittering word such as glamour, intrigue and power have been used. The audience associates the words glamour, intrigue, power and sex with an internationally known icon, playboy Bunny (Frans van Bart and Bert 2009). The fallacy is in the inference. By purchasing the key to the play boy club lifestyle and one can own powerful sexuality. Ones reasoning contain the fallacy of appeal to emotions when ads appeal one to purchase the product merely because the appeal arouses ones feelings of sexuality. Sexuality is a strong emotion. Sexual connection is instinctive, immediate and appeals to everyone. A person doesn’t usually apply critical thinking to sexual impulses, so this type of advertisement pays off quickly. Appeal to ignorance This fallacy argues on the basis of what is not known and cannot be proven. It holds the belief that if one cannot prove that something is false then it must be true and vice versa. Appeal to ignorance occurs when one believes something to be true that is not, because one has no knowledge about the subject to prove otherwise. For instance, an argument that is based on stereotype (Frans van Bart and Bert 2009). The cigarette advertisement asks the audience to accept the truth of the claim that pleasure tastes great in red because there no proof that the contrary exists. In this case, there is no reason for holding to this belief but one is asked to accept the statement as true because it cannot be proven false. The assumption that pleasure tastes great in red is an error in reasoning. The audience is made to assume that pleasure does not taste great in blue, yellow or green. This advert is simply illogical rhetoric that also uses an appeal to emotional language. The meaning associated with the word pleasure is universally positive. Inconsistency A fallacy is inconsistent if it contains two assertions either implicit or explicit, which are logically incompatible with each other. Inconsistency may occur between words or actions. The fallacy occurs when one accepts an inconsistent set of claims, that is, when one accept a claim that logically confl.

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For this assignment, I want you to take any four of the Logical Fallacies from the list under "Midterm Quiz Materials" and explain how you have heard those fallacies used in real life. You may have used them yourself, heard a friend or family member use them, heard them used in class, or even on television or in a speech. Just explain to us what the circumstances were and what they said that you feel fits that particular Logical Fallacy. Do that for four different Fallacies from the list by 11:59 p.m. on Thursday, Feb. 22. Also, make one good comment on at least one other student's submission. You are welcome to comment on as many as you like, but I will only require one. -- Logical Fallacies are statements that might sound reasonable or superficially true but are actually flawed or dishonest. When readers detect them, these logical fallacies backfire by making the audience think the writer is (a) unintelligent or (b) deceptive. It is important to avoid them in your own arguments, and it is also important to be able to spot them in others' arguments so a false line of reasoning won't fool you. Think of this as intellectual kung-fu: the vital art of self-defense in a debate.. Ad Hominem , literally, "argument toward the man." Also called "Poisoning the Well": Attacking or praising the people who make an argument, rather than discussing the argument itself. This practice is fallacious because the personal character of an individual is logically irrelevant to the truth or falseness of the argument itself. The statement "2+2=4" is true regardless if it is stated by criminals, congressmen, or pastors. There are two subcategories: (1) Abusive: To argue that proposals, assertions, or arguments must be false or dangerous because they originate with atheists, Christians, Muslims, communists, capitalists, the John Birch Society, Catholics, anti-Catholics, racists, anti-racists, feminists, misogynists (or any other group) is fallacious. This persuasion comes from irrational psychological transference rather than from an appeal to evidence or logic concerning the issue at hand. This is similar to the genetic fallacy, and only an anti-intellectual would argue otherwise. (2) Circumstantial: To argue that an opponent should accept or reject an argument because of circumstances in his or her life. If one's adversary is a clergyman, suggesting that he should accept a particular argument because not to do so would be incompatible with the scriptures is such a fallacy. To argue that, because the reader is a Republican or Democrat, she must vote for a specific measure is likewise a circumstantial fallacy. The opponent's special circumstances have no control over the truth or untruth of a specific contention. The speaker or writer must find additional evidence beyond that to make a strong case. This is also similar to the genetic fallacy in some ways. If you are a college student who wants to learn rational thought, you simpl ...

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1 Running Head: FALLACY JOURNAL 2 FALLACY JOURNAL Name Institution Date Emotionally Loaded Language This fallacy arises when one uses the terms that shows more about ones feelings on the issues other than the rational basis from which those feelings are derived or when one uses emotions to alter the belief or behavior of others. Emotionally loaded language uses terms to evoke emotional response towards a particular product rather than explaining the reasoning for using or purchasing the product (Frans van Bart and Bert 2009). This fallacy manipulates emotions in order to get ones attention away from an important issue. An emotional appeal is directed to divert the audience emotions and often uses the appeal of prejudice rather than offer a good assessment of a situation (Frans van Bart and Bert 2009). In the advertisement words positive connotation also known as glittering word such as glamour, intrigue and power have been used. The audience associates the words glamour, intrigue, power and sex with an internationally known icon, playboy Bunny (Frans van Bart and Bert 2009). The fallacy is in the inference. By purchasing the key to the play boy club lifestyle and one can own powerful sexuality. Ones reasoning contain the fallacy of appeal to emotions when ads appeal one to purchase the product merely because the appeal arouses ones feelings of sexuality. Sexuality is a strong emotion. Sexual connection is instinctive, immediate and appeals to everyone. A person doesn’t usually apply critical thinking to sexual impulses, so this type of advertisement pays off quickly. Appeal to ignorance This fallacy argues on the basis of what is not known and cannot be proven. It holds the belief that if one cannot prove that something is false then it must be true and vice versa. Appeal to ignorance occurs when one believes something to be true that is not, because one has no knowledge about the subject to prove otherwise. For instance, an argument that is based on stereotype (Frans van Bart and Bert 2009). The cigarette advertisement asks the audience to accept the truth of the claim that pleasure tastes great in red because there no proof that the contrary exists. In this case, there is no reason for holding to this belief but one is asked to accept the statement as true because it cannot be proven false. The assumption that pleasure tastes great in red is an error in reasoning. The audience is made to assume that pleasure does not taste great in blue, yellow or green. This advert is simply illogical rhetoric that also uses an appeal to emotional language. The meaning associated with the word pleasure is universally positive. Inconsistency A fallacy is inconsistent if it contains two assertions either implicit or explicit, which are logically incompatible with each other. Inconsistency may occur between words or actions. The fallacy occurs when one accepts an inconsistent set of claims, that is, when one accept a claim that logically confl.

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Find an example of a logical fallacy on YouTube. There are some really strong, recent examples of logical fallacies from the world of politics, advertising, television, movies - the list goes on! Link to your example and in 1-2 paragraphs explain the fallacy. Make sure to include the name of the fallacy as described in Chapter 6: Ad Hominem: An attack on the person, rather than directly addressing the persons reasons. Narrative: Assuming incorrectly that because we can tell a story that seems to explain the occurrence of a set of facts, we now understand the links relating the facts to one another. Slippery Slope: Making the assumption that a proposed step will set off an uncontrollable chain of undesirable events, when procedures exist to prevent such a chain of events. Searching for Perfect Solution : Falsely assuming that because part of a problem remains after a solution is tried, the solution should not be adopted. Appeal to Popularity (Ad Populum): An attempt to justify a claim by appealing to sentiments that large groups of people have in common; falsely assumes that anything favored by a large group is desirable. Appeal to Questionable Authority: Supporting a conclusion by citing an authority who lacks special expertise on the issue at hand. Appeal to Emotion: The use of emotionally charged language to distract readers and listeners from relevant reasons and evidence. Common emotions appealed to are fear, hope, patriotism, pity, and sympathy. Straw Person: Distorting our opponents point of view so that it is easy to attack; thus we attack a point of view that does not truly exist. Either-Or (or False Dilemma): Assuming only two alternatives when there are more than two. Explaining by Naming: Falsely assuming that because you have provided a name for some event or behavior, you have also adequately explained the event. The Planning Fallacy: The tendency for people or organizations to underestimate how long they will need to complete a task, despite numerous prior experiences of having underestimated how long something would take to finish. Glittering Generality: The use of vague, emotionally appealing virtue words that dispose us to approve something without closely examining the reasons. Red Herring: An irrelevant topic is presented to divert attention from the original issue and help to win an argument by shifting attention away from the argument and to another issue. Begging the Question: An argument in which the conclusion is assumed in the reasoning. If your video contains more than just the fallacy, make a note of what time in the video the fallacy takes place..

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Critical thinking

1. Critical Thinking for Kids

2. 1. What is critical thinking

3. Objective VS. Subjective

4. Facts VS. Opinion https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fnFnWWAnlkw

6. Moral Subjectivism

7. Arguments, Premises And Conclusions

10.

11. reasoning

12. Deductive VS. Inductive

13.

14.

15. 2. cognitive biases

16.

17.

18.

19. belief bias all dogs are animal is animal is dog

20. bandwagon effect

21. obedience to authority

22. conﬁrmation bias

23. hindsight bias

24. availability heuristic

25. 3. source of confusion

26. vague

27. ambiguity

28. abstraction

29. 4. believability

30.

31.

32. Source

33. stakeholders／Interested Party

34. 5. rhetoric

35. euphemism

36. weaseler About Up to Maybe Possible

37. downplayer So called Merely Quotation Mark Only

38. stereotype

39. hyperbole

40. proof surrogate

41. repeat

42. 5. emotion related fallacy

43. rage/angry

44. scare/argument by force

45. argument from pity

46. argument from envy

47. vain

48. guilty

49. peer pressure arguments

50. groupthink fallacy／nationalism

51. red herring / smoke screen

52. argument from popularity

53. arguments from common practice

54. argument from tradition

55.

56. rationalizing

57. two wrong make a right

58.

59. 6. more fallacy

60. the ad hominem fallacy

61.

62. the genetic fallacy

63. straw man fallacy

64. false dilemma

65. slippery slope

66. misplace the burden proof

67. begging the question

68. 7. deduction categorical logic

69. venn diagram

70. venn diagram

71.

72. venn diagram

73. all A’s are B’s B A

74. not A’s are B’s B A

75. some A’s are B’s B A BA A B

76. some A’s are not B’s B A B A A B

77. syllogism

78. 8 deduction true-functional logic

79. and / conjunction

80. not / negation

81. or / disjunction

82. conditional claim

83. sufﬁcient vs necessary

84. logic deduction •A -> B, B -> C •A -> C •A -> B •not B -> not A

85. 9 non-deductive reasoning

86. statistical syllogism

87. sampling

88. analogy

89. illicit inductive conversation “Most wealthy people are men so most men are wealthy.” “Most modern terrorists are Muslims, therefore most Muslims are terrorists.”

90. 10 cause and effect

91.

92. fully explanation

93. Hypotheis • method of diﬀerence • method of agreement (cum hoc, ergo propter hoc) • causal mechanism • best diagnosis method

94. method of difference

95. method of agreement

96. causal mechanism

97. best diagnosis

98. control experiments

99. 11 moral

100. value judgement

101.