1. The Academic Review: How box blight of Buxus spp. is changing the
landscape in the 21st
Century.
Introduction
Buxussppis an importantplantinhistoryaswell asin today’sworld.The firstformal clippedbox
was usedbythe Egyptiansin4,000BC (TopiaryArts,2016). Throughouthistoryand still todaybox is
usedas the structural,formal elementingardensandlandscape design.Ithasbeen usedasa means
of executionof ‘control of nature’andas a status symbol of wealthandalso formedicinal purposes
(TopiaryArts,2016). Howeverthisiconicplantspeciesisunderthreatinthe wildaswell asinman-
made landscapesandgardens.The pestanddiseasesthat affectthe Buxusspp.are many.However
inthispaper the mainfocuswill be Box Blight’simpactonlandscapesandhorticulture.
Historic importance of the Buxus spp. in the UK.
In the UK particularlythe native Buxus sppwasgrowingwilduntil the Ice Age whereuponthe native
spp.was destroyed.Howeverthe Romaninvasionin100BC re-introducedthe species(TopiaryArts,
2016). In the Middle Agesandthroughto the Elizabethanperiodthe Buxuswasusedforknot
gardens,hedges,galleriesaswell asindividualspecimendisplays afteritwasfound thatcypressspp
were notas reliable (TopiaryArts,2016).The Hamptoncourt gardensof HenryVIIIhad box spheres,
conesand animals(TopiaryArts,2016). Topiarywas bornas a statussymbol and to indicate control
of nature. Throughthe 17th
into18th
centurythe naturalisticmovementledbyCapabilityBrownsaw
Buxus’usage decline asitwasno longerfashionable toimpose formalityontothe landscape (Wilson,
2014). In the 19th
centurythe returnof formalitycame ina re-birthof the ‘Italian Renaissance’The
Buxusbecame a staple; carpetbeddingschemes,low hedgesandextreme topiarydesignsof crowns,
birdsdominatedlandscape designandparks.Nurseriesinthe UKwere becomingspecialisedin
topiaryworksand selling‘alreadyformed’plantsincontainerstothe public(TopiaryArts,2016). The
returnof ‘knotstyle’gardensandparterresbecame the identityof the ‘BritishGarden’
In the 20th
centurythe Arts and Craftmovementmeantthatthe harshcontrol of nature was relaxed
thoughinformal borderdesignswithplantingschemesandlayoutdidnotbanishthe box but
incorporateditas a backdropand structural elementwithinadesign.Topiarywasless extremein
design.Inthe 60’s the publicwentthroughthe ‘FrontGardenMovement’ withclassicrose bedsand
the use of topiaryandhedgingwaspopular.We still see the Buxusasa stable plantinthe garden
and instructural landscape designsanduse itheavilyforcreationof shapesandbackdrops.Inthe
urban landscape itisusedinlowline fronthedgingasa protective andframingbarrieraround

2. plantingschemesandthe topiaryball andpyramidisusedoutside establishmentssuchashotels,
restaurants,shoppingcentresandpublichousestomarkformalisedentrances tobuildings.
The Main threats to Buxus spp.
The Box Caterpillar Moth– Cydalimaperspectalishasbecome anincreasing threatinrecentyears.
The Box CaterpillarenteredEurope in2007 andin 2011 the pesthad fullyreproducedinthis
country. In 2012 thiscaterpillarreplacedthe molluscsspp.(snail/slug) as the mosttroublesomepest
ina poll conductedbythe RHS (Appleby,M.2013). By 2014, it had become fullyestablishedin
Londonand the home-counties(Royal Horticultural Society,2016). These caterpillarscause
defoliationbyeatingthe foliage (Plate 1) andinclippedBuxuscause full dyingbackof the plantin
highdensityfeedingareas. The caterpillarprotectthemselveswithwhite webbingduringfeeding
and pupation.
Plate 1 - The Box Tree Caterpillar Image Source; Royal Horticultural Society https://www.rhs.org.uk/advice/profile?pid=760
Caption: Identification information; The moth eggs are laid on the underside of the leaves in an overlapping/flat sheet
formation and have a greenish/yellow appearance. The young caterpillars have yellow/green bodies with a black head, as
they mature the body has black and white striping down the sides. The adult moth have white wings with a brown rim
border.
There ischemical treatmentavailable forthe caterpillaraswell asa pheromone treatmentfor
attractingthe adultstagedmothintotraps (Royal Horticultural Society,2016). The impactof this
invaderon the UK isa cause forconcern as ithas the potential toattack our wildbox treesandhave
a large impact onour hedges,topiaryspecimens.
Box Blight- There are twogeneticstrains of the fungal disease;Cylindrocladiumbuxicola(now
knownas Calonectriapseudonauiculata)affectingthe wholeBuxaceaefamily.The second;
Pseudonetriabuxi onlyaffecting the Buxusspp (Royal Horticultural Society,2015; Ivors,2016;

3. Horticulture Week,2015).The fungal infectionsco-existwithone anothermostoftenon aplant
Cylindrocladiumbuxicolabeingthe mostserious of the two(Royal HorticulturalSociety,2015; Ivors,
2016). Both strainsexhibitthe,browningandspottingonleaves,anddefoliation,dyingbackpatches
(Plate 2) whichleadstodeathof the plant (Henricot& Wedgwood,2013; Royal Horticultural Society
, 2015; Horticulture Week,2015).The Cylindrocladiumbuxicolaaffectsstemtissuesinadditionwith
blackstreaksand die back (Henricot&Wedgwood,2013) The sporesof the fungi are distinctly
differentandinwetweathercanbe seen.The Cylindrocladiumbuxicolahaswhite sporesandthe
Pseudonectriabuxi haspinkspores (Royal Horticultural Society,2015; Ivors,2016).
Plate 2 - Box Blight Image Source; Royal Horticultural Society https://www.rhs.org.uk/advice/profile?pid=96
Caption: A Fungal disease affecting foliage and is spread by moisture and overwintering reproductive soil borne spores.
Classic symptoms of browning and sudden dying back and death spots can take hold very quickly.
Climate Change
As we knowclimate change globallyisaffectingmany organismsandplantlife.Fromthe statistics
and analysisof the UK’s climate change forecast(UKCP09) reportitprojectsthat warmer andwetter
wintersanddrierbut more humidsummerswill become the UKclimate (UKClimate Projections -
Met Office,2009). Thiswill resultinarapidincrease of fungal infectionsandspeedof spread of box
blightandotherfungal infectionsinthe UK (Forestry Comission,2015).The wettersoil conditions
will alsoincrease the riskof rootrot diseasesforthe Buxusandof course other plants.
The Significance of Box Blight affecting Horticulture.
It isa worldwide spreadproblem. (Plate3) There are 70 speciesof Buxusworldwide whichare
mainlyinthe tropical andsubtropical regions, 30reside inCubaand 17 are native toMadagascar
(Wilson,2014). The restof the Buxusspp are spreadacross the Caribbean,Chinaandthe Americas
includingLatinAmerica(Henricot&Wedgwood,2013; Wilson,2014). The Native Europeanand
AsianBuxusare the onlyfrost hardy species.The true originof the disease isunknown.The earliest

4. record of the disease wasfoundinthe UK in1990’s (Henricot&Wedgwood,2013; Ivors,2016;
Wilson,2014; Weeda,S.M etal, 2012; Horticulture Week,2015) ina Hampshire nursery (Appleby,
M. 2013). From2002 onwardsit had spreadthroughEurope and to New Zealand (Weeda,S.M etal,
2012). In recentyearsit hasspreadto the Americasand East Asia (Henricot&Wedgwood,2013;
Ivors,2016; Wilson,2014, Weeds,S.Metal, 2012).
Plate 3 - Worldwide Map of Box Blight infections. Source; Authors own creation with map image from http//:mapsofthe
world.com.
The Native BuxussempervienslocatedinSurreywasreportedin2000 to have Box Blightpresent
(Appleby,M.2013) and the Turkishnative collection confirmedinfectionin2011 (Lehtrijarvi,2014)
whichisof greatconcern.
Production and Commercially
Commerciallythe salesof the Buxushave droppedinrecentyearsdue tothe fearand stigma
attachedto the plant. In additionsome nurseriesare unknowingly sellinginfectedplantstothe
gardencentre sectorby not fullyunderstandingthe diseasesidentifiable markers.Howeverinsome
casesthere has beenpoorpractice by nurseriesandproducersbysuppressinginfectedplantswith
fungicidesreadyforsale andthe gardencentressuddenlyexperiencingexplosionsof box blightfrom
the re-emergence(Henricot,B. 2013; The EuropeanBoxwoodandTopiarySociety,2014). Nurseries
such as BuckinghamNurseriesdiversifieddue toseeingBuxussalesdropby50% andthe sales of the
alternativesincreasing(Appleby,M.2013). Howeversome of the alternativesare currentlyinshort
supplyasmany establishmentshave notfully/speedilydiversified.Some of these‘replacementof

5. box plants’are vulnerable inthemselvesassuchas Loniceraspp. because theytendtobe mass/over
producedandthisin turn could furthercause weaknessestootherdiseases (Appleby,M.2013).
Historic/Visitor Attraction Gardens and Landscapes
In the amenitysectorof horticulture Box Blightgreatlyaffects the finances of visitorattractionsas
well asthe aestheticappearance andhistoric,iconiccharacterof a landscape (Reid,2015; Watkins&
Wright,2007; Wilson,2014; The EuropeanBoxwoodandTopiarySociety,2014). The economic
damage that the infectioncaninflictuponanestablishmentcanrunintothe thousands. The fact
that Buxusisslowgrowing; andit takes 18 yearsto grow and shape a large topiaryball means that
specimenwouldbe worth£1,000 if notmore (Wilson,2014). Whenan infectionbreaksout the need
for pathologyreports,closure of the site duringinfections,the fungicides, andmanpowerinitself
and the operationof removal of infectedmaterial andreplacementplantingare all factorsarising
fromBox Blightinfection (Reid,2015).In many historiclandscapesthe Buxusisthe mostimportant
structural plantand the loss/damage the diseasecausesmore than financial andpractical problems.
In some establishmentsthe spreadof itcan be so horrificand fast(48hrs) (Reid,2015; Horticulture
Week,2015) the devastationandlossof keyandspecial specimenscanhithard. IckworthParkthe
Italianate Renaissance Gardenswere repeatedlystruckoveratenyearperiodanda massive
infectionin2015 wipedout80% of the hedgingincludingaspecimenthatwasover200years old
(Reid,2015). Up and downthe UK managersof landscapes,gardensandvisitorattractionsare
havingto make difficult decisionsinregardstohow bestto manage the disease andthe future of the
designandplantselectionforthese establishments.The combinationof cultural practicesand
hygiene managementwithfungicidesisonlyworkinguptoapoint.
Management of the Disease and New Developments – Is there a way forward?
Buxus spp Genetics
The study of susceptibilitytothe box blightdisease hasbeenextensivelyresearchedand ithas been
foundthat there are some speciesandcultivarsthatappearto be more resistanttothe infection
(Shishkoff,2015) butthisis debatable asthe studiesshow thatthe resistance isnota ‘complete’
resistance.Eventuallytheydoall succumb to the box blightinfection andthatresistance is marginal
(Yonghong,2015). Eventhoughthe geneticvariation of the genusiswide ithas provendifficultto
breedBuxus (Laere &Hermans,2015). Howeverthere iscurrentlysome optimismintermsof
breeding.The scientificcommunity isincreasingfurtherunderstandingof the characteristicsof the
Buxaceae family. The leaf structure of aparticularspp.such as thickerleaf cuticle/epidermal tissue
layersanda smallerleaf surface areaindicate aphysiological designthatprovestoprovide ‘alevel’
of plantdefence fromthe fungus (Shishkoff,2015).This isparticularlyapparentinthe macrophylla
subspeciesof Buxushavinga highertolerance andlowersusceptibilitycomparedtosempervirens

6. but the varietyof cultivarshada significantgeneticimpactof the resistance levelwithinthese sub
speciesgroups (Henricot&Wedgwood,2013; Shishkoff,2015; Yonghong,2015). Howeverthe
techniquesof testingsusceptibilityneedmore refining asfieldtrialsandlaboratoryscenariosare
verydifferentandusinginoculatedcuttingsisverydifferenttousingplantspecimens (Henricot,
2013; Yonghong,2015).
A newdevelopmentof aSSR-cDNalibraryhas been createdtolook forparticulargeneticmarkers.
845 of these have beenisolatedfrommRNA material andfromthose 23 polymorphicprimerpairs
have beenidentified (Thammina,2014) as keygeneticcharatisiticthatcan be usedforBox Blight
resistance ingeneticdiversity,hybridisationandcultivarbreedingof Buxus (Thammina,2014).
Hybridization of BuxustoF1 fromcross combinationsresultingin 4750 ‘interspecific’F1 seedlings
has recentlybeenachieved in2015 witha seedgerminationrate between0-47%. (Laere & Hermans,
2015). Howeverthese are earlydaysandthe interspecificrange of those seedlingsmay/maynotbe
variable orsuccessful butthe hybridscouldofferthe scientificcommunitythe opportunitytoexploit
the F1 fordesirable traits (Laere &Hermans,2015).
Biological Understanding of the Funguses Life Cycles
In a taxonomicre assessmentof Cylindrocladiumbuxicola(reclassifiedasCalonectriapseudonavicala
now) the fungushastwo geneticcladesunearthinganew phylogeneticspecies‘Calonectria
henricotiae’ (Gehesquière,2016) as an additional variantof the Box Blightdiseasewhichhasa
greatertolerance tohighertemperaturesandincreasedtolerance tofungicides (Gehesquière,2016).
Thisnewinformationisworryingbutthe communityknow thatthere ismore variance inthe fungal
familynowand more researchcan be undertaken (Gehesquière,2016). The twostrainsof Box Blight
have very differentoverwinteringmechanisms.Itwasfoundthatthe Cylindrocladiumbuxicolahasa
unique overwinteringstructure form; ‘Microsclerotia’whichallowsthe fungustoreproduce during
wintermonthswithinsoil.Thisexplainshow repeatedre infectionoccurfromleaf littermaterial and
dirtytools/machineryasthiscell structure cansurvive for5yearswithinleaf material andupto15
yearsin soil and inminusfigure temperatures (Weeda, S.Metal 2012; Ganci,2013). This
evolutionaryadaptationinthe Cylindrocladiumbuxicolaisnotpresentinthe Pseudonectriabuxi
strainof the fungus (Weeda, S.Met al 2012) whichconfirmshow andwhyone strainis more
rampant andmore difficulttotreatincomparisonto the otherstrain. Thiscouldunlockwhattypes
of fungicide touse andtailormake compoundingredientstotargetthisaspectof the funguseslife
cycle inthe future.

7. Fungicides
The EU have recentlybanned some fungicidesthatare used inthe treatmentof the disease (Royal
Horticultural Society,2015). The EU regularlyreviewschemical substancesand thismeansthat
horticulturistsacrossthe industryhave tokeepuptodate withthe use of fungicidesandother
chemical treatments (Royal Horticultural Society,2015; Wilson,2014). There have beena few
studiesintothe effectivenessof themagainstBox Blightbutmostly sothe Cylindrocladiumbuxicola
strain.Theyhave beeninconclusive orofferasuppressive/moderate level of control.Howevera
recentstudy evaluatedandtestedvariousproducts andfoundthatone all-roundproduct
‘Opponent’ completelyeradiatedbox blightandtimingandchoice of fungicides suchas‘Bravo’,
‘Octave’and‘Signum’ greatly affected how wellthose productsworked(Henricot&Wedgwood,
2013). Howeverthese are all commercial productsthatthe publiccannotaccess.The study did
howeverfindthat‘FungusClear’ whichisonthe publicmarket, didofferamoderate control butstill
thisdoesnot reallyofferatotal solution tothe general public.
Plant Selections
The Buxusspp as discussedhaslimitedresistance tothe disease butthe followingtable show more
tolerantspecieswhich couldstill be usedwithinalandscape orsoldcommerciallytocustomers
whomstill desire box plants. (Table 1) There are a wide range of alternative thatcanbe usedinstead
of Buxus if the decisionistobe takento avoidall Buxusspp (Table 1) butthisnot the solutionand
otheralternative have theirownpitfalls.
Table 1 - Collective list of Buxus spp to avoid and use and alternative plant selections. Authors own consolidation from a
range of sources.
Buxus spp to avoid using More tolerant Buxus spp Alternatives to Buxus
B. sempervirens B. microphylla ‘Compacta’ Euonymus fortunei (various)
B. sempervirens ‘Elegantissima’ B. sinica var. insularis ‘Winter Beauty’ Rosmarinus officinalis
B. sempervirens ‘Suffruticosa’ B. sinica var. insularis ‘Pincushion’ Lavandula angustifolia
B. sempervirens ‘American’ B. microphylla ‘Faulker’ Ligustrum Ovalifolium
B. sinica var insularis ‘Justin
Brouwers’
B. macrophylla ‘Trompenburg’ Ilex crenata
B. sempervirens ‘Marginata’ B. harlandii Lonicera nitida and Lonicera
nitida ’Baggins Gold’
B. sempervirens ‘Jensen’ B. microphylla ‘Golden Dream’ Podocarpus lawrencei, salignus
and andina
B. sempervirens ‘Pendula’ B. microphylla ‘Winter Gem’ Taxus baccata
B. sempervirens ‘Scupi’ Myrtus communis
Berberis various
Hebe ‘buxifolia’ and ‘odora’
(short term solution for urban
building enterances)

8. Good Practice and Strategic Methodology
Non-chemical/goodpracticesare importanttopreventawiderspreadof box blightfromoutbreaks
howevertheyare limitedwithdealingwithinfectionsalone.The combinationof fungicidetreatment
and goodpractice offera moderate control of the disease (Royal Horticultural Society,2015). It has
beenknowthatsome Buxusdo survive afteraninfectionbuthave ahighriskof infectingother
surroundingspecimensandare likelytobecome re-infectedagain.
Belowisa range of advisoryinformationthatconsiderschemicalandnon-chemical options.
 The current advice fordealingwithbox blightinfectionswithoutfungicidesemphasises good
hygiene practice withmachinery,pruningequipmentandPPE/clothingbyusingdisinfectant
and washingclothingarticlesregularly(Horticulture Week,2015; Ganci, 2013; Ivors,2016;
The EuropeanBoxwoodandTopiarySociety,2014; Royal Horticultural Society,2015).
 Whenan infectionisidentifieditisimportanttoascertainwhichorif co-existence of strains
are present(Reid,2015; Henricot& Wedgwood,2013; Ivors,2016). That waythe decision
whethertouse fungicidesandpractice operationssuchaspruningoutmaterial can be
examined (RoyalHorticulturalSociety ,2015). The removal of all dead,dyingandinfected
material shouldbe incineratedandsoil disposedof inaccordance to legislation (Reid,2015;
The EuropeanBoxwoodandTopiarySociety,2014; Horticulture Week,2015; Watkins&
Wright,2007).
 Overheadirrigationincreasesthe spreadingpotential of the fungussothisshouldbe
avoided (The EuropeanBoxwoodandTopiarySociety,2014). Dripirrigationinthe
commercial settingoffersareductioninrisk(Wilson,2014).
 Reducingthe clippingregimeof hedgesandtopiaryshouldbe consideredwherepossibleas
tightlyclippedspecimenshave poorairventilationandthis increasesthe riskof infection
(Royal Horticultural Society,2015; The EuropeanBoxwoodandTopiarySociety,2014).
 Landscape and Commercial Managersshouldtake cuttingsfromnon-infectedmaterial and
builda ‘safetybank’of specimens (The EuropeanBoxwoodandTopiarySociety,2014) so if
infectionstrikesthe replantationcostsare reducedbythe creationof yourownstock.

9.  Applicationof mulchonsoil areascouldassistinreducingre-infectionfrom fungusspores
leftinthe soil (CU Cooperative ExtensionTeam, 2015).
Conclusion
Commercial growers,nurseriesandlandscape managersneedtoselect,evaluate andplanhow they
wishto use fungicide productsonthe basisof theirsituationorpreventativemethodsof protecting
theirbox plants. The scientificcommunityare discoveringmore andmore aboutthe disease andthe
Buxaceae familyinwhichgeneticscreening,cataloguingandbreedingprogrammesare beginningto
developmethodsof producingplantswithtraitsthatcouldprove significantindisease resistance
and increasingtolerance levels.The morphological understandingof the fungushasshedlightona
newsubstrainof the disease fromCylindrocladiumbuxicolaandleda nomaculture reclassification
of thatstrain to Calonectriapseudonviculata.The fungi lifecycle andreproductivemechanismshave
beenexploredandthisinturnmay offera soil treatmentinthe future.The assessmentandattitude
to the usage of Buxus species inthe landscape isthatevenwiththe disease beingpresentthere are
waysforwardin termsof alternativesanddifferentselectionsof box plants.Stillthere are fearsof
Native spp.areaswill be greatlyaffectedbythe disease,climate change andotherpestand disease
infections.The combinationof hygieneandfungicidetreatmentofferaslow downto the spreadof
the disease butdonot offera true eradication. Fungicide developmentincorrelation to
understandingthe disease will eventuallybecomeasignificantmethodtopossiblyeradicate it.
Currentlyfungicide offersuppressionandcontainmentbutthe developmentof new productsare
provingtobe increasinglyeffective andthe timingof applicationshave proventobe a breakthrough
inthe managementof the disease. Onlytime,scienceandeffective managementwill determine how
far thisdisease takesholdandthe outcome forthe Buxussppas a plant.
Word Count2,804

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List of Plates
Plate 1 - The Box Tree CaterpillarImage Source;Royal Horticultural Society
https://www.rhs.org.uk/advice/profile?pid=760
Plate 2 - Box BlightImage Source;Royal Horticultural Society
https://www.rhs.org.uk/advice/profile?pid=96
Plate 3 - Worldwide Mapof Box Blightinfections.Source;Authorsowncreationwithmapimage
fromhttp://mapsoftheworld.com
List of Tables
Table 1 - Collective listof Buxusspptoavoidand use and alternative plantselections.Authorsown
consolidationfromarange of sources.